LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Cla&s 


THEATRE  FIRES  AND  PANICS: 


THEIR 


CAUSES   AND    PREVENTION. 


BY 

WILLIAM   PAUL  GERHARD,   C.E., 

Consulting  Engineer $1?  Sanitary  Works, 


FIRST   EDITION. 

FIRST    THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK : 

JOHN   WILEY  &   SONS. 

LONDON:  CHAPMAN   &   HALL,    LIMITED. 

1896, 


Copyright,  1896, 

BY 

WM.  PAUL  GERHARD. 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,    ELECTROTYPER   AND    PRINTER,    NEW   YORK. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  little  book  is  not  intended  to  be  a  general 
treatise  on  "  Theatre  Planning  and  Construction."  It 
is  simply,  as  its  title  implies,  a  discussion  of  the  causes 
and  the  prevention  of  fires  and  panics  in  theatres.  A 
few  years  ago  the  writer  prepared  several  essays  on  the 
subject,  which  are  herewith  reproduced  substantially 
as  originally  given.  The  writer  has  added  at  the  end 
of  the  book  a  list  of  the  literature  (works,  pamphlets, 
and  articles  in  technical  journals)  bearing  upon  the  sub- 
ject, which  he  has  found  of  value  in  studying  the  whole 
question,  and  which  he  hopes  will  be  helpful  to 
others. 

May  the  book  prove  of  practical  utility  and  of  in- 
terest generally  to  architects,  engineers,  theatre  man- 
agers,  and  fire  underwriters,  and  fulfil  its  mission  of 
securing  greater  safety  in  theatres  ! 

THE  AUTHOR, 

NEW  YORK  CITY,  36  UNION  SQUARE, 
July,  1896. 

iii 


127676 


CONTENTS. 


I.  THEATRE-FIRE  CATASTROPHES  AND  THEIR  PREVEN- 

TION. 

PAGE 

Introduction I 

Theatre-fire  Statistics 3 

List  of  Twelve  Prominent  Theatre-fire  Calamities  of  this  Cen- 
tury   12 

Causes  of  Theatre  Fires 20 

Causes  of  Panics 25 

Dangers  to  Human  Life 27 

The  Prevention  of  Theatre-fire  Catastrophes. 29 

(a)  Measures  to  prevent  outbreak  of  fire 29 

(b)  Measures  to  localize  fires , 29 

(c)  Measures  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  spectators  and  of  the 

stage  people 30 

(d)  Measures  to  put  out  fires 30 

Theatre  Inspections 40 

Theatre  Management 44 

Conclusion 45 

II.  THE    ESSENTIAL     CONDITIONS    OF    SAFETY    IN 

THEATRES. 

Introduction 47 

Causes  of  Theatre  Fires 49 

Statistics  of  Theatre  Fires 51 

General  Considerations , 52 

Location  and  Site 57 

Plan  of  Building 59 

Construction  of  Building 65 

Staircases,  Entrances  and  Exits,  and  Fire-escapes 69 

v 


vi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Aisles  and  Chairs 73 

Fire-proof  Curtain 75 

Stage  Ventilator 77 

Fire-proof  Treatment  of  Stage  Scenery 79 

Stage  Construction  and  Stage  Machinery 80 

Heating 83 

Lighting 85 

Lightning-rods -89 

Ventilation  and  Sanitation 90 

Fire-service  and  Fire-extinguishing  Appliances 92 

Life-saving  Appliances 97 

Fire-alarms 98 

Questions  of  Management 99 

Periodical  Inspection ....   103 


III.    THE   WATER-SERVICE   AND    FIRE    PROTECTION 
OF   THEATRES. 

Introduction 105 

GENERAL   REQUIREMENTS    OF   SAFETY   IN  THEATRES. 

1.  As  regards  the  Location 105 

2.  As  regards  the  Plan 106 

3.  As  regards  the  Construction 106 

4.  As  regards  the  Interior  Arrangement  and  Equipment 107 

5.  As  regards  the  Management 109 

6.  As  regards  Inspection in 

FIRE-EXTINGUISHING  APPLIANCES. 

1.  Water  supply  and  Water-mains 114 

2.  Water-meter  and  By-pass 116 

3.  Shut  offs  and  Gate-valves 117 

4.  Fire-pumps 118 

Details  of  Underwriter  Fire-pump 121 

Fire-pump  for  Theatres 124 

5.  Suction -reservoir 127 

6.  Fire  Stand-pipes 128 

7.  Fire-valves 130 

8.  Fire-hose..      132 

9    Fire  Nozzles  and  Couplings 135 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

10.  Monitor  Nozzles 136 

11.  Hose-racks 137 

12.  Hose-spanners 138 

13.  Automatic-sprinkler  System 139 

14.  Perforated- pipe  System , 153 

15.  Fire- pails 155 

16.  Casks 159 

1 7.  Portable  Fire-extinguishing  Apparatus 159 

18.  Steam- jets 161 

19.  Sand 161 

20.  Fire-axes  and  Fire-hooks 161 

21.  Minor  Fire-extinguishing  Devices 162 

22.  Life-saving  Appliances 162 

23.  Fire-alarm  and  Watchman's  Clock 163 

24.  Water-supply  for  House  Service 163 

IV.  LITERATURE  ON  THEATRES. 

1.  Books — English 165 

"         German , 165 

"         French 168 

"         Italian , 168 

2.  Pamphlets 168 

3.  Articles  in  Journals  and  Magazines 171 

4.  Rules  and  Regulations 175 

5.  Official  Reports 175 


THEATRE    FIRES    AND    PANICS:   THEIR 
CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION. 


I. 


THEATRE-FIRE    CATASTROPHES  AND  THEIR 
PREVENTION.* 

THE  prevention  of  fire  and  incidental  panic  in  halls 
of  audience  requires  that  in  the  planning,  construction, 
interior  arrangement  and  equipment  of  such  buildings 
certain  rules  should  be  followed,  and  certain  pre- 
cautions observed  by  the  architects  and  engineers  of 
such  structures.  Of  the  greatest  importance  in  respect 

*  This  paper  was  prepared  by  the  author  for  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  International  Association  of  Fire  Engineers,  held  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  in  August,  1894.  It  was  introduced  with  the  following  words: 
"  Gentlemen  of  the  International  Association  of  Fire  Engineers  :  Yours 
is  an  organization  which  has  for  its  chief  object  '  the  intelligent  pro- 
tection of  human  life  and  the  saving  of  property.'  Your  annual  meet 
ings  are  held  largely  with  the  view  of  learning  of  improved  methods 
of  fire-fighting.  Your  principal  business  is  to  fight  and  put  out  fires, 
yet  I  believe  I  do  not  err  in  stating  thatyfov  prevention  is  a  subject  in 
which  you  are  likewise  interested.  Indeed,  the  law  in  my  own  city, 
to  quote  an  example,  declares  that  '  the  fire  department  shall  be  charged 
with  the  duty  of  preventing  and  of  extinguishing  fire  and  of  protecting 
property.'  You  will  observe  that  preventing  fire  comes  first  in  the 


2  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

to  the  enactment  of  strict  building  laws  are  all  build- 
ings where  a  multitude  of  people  are  congregated,  by 
day  or  at  night,  for  worship,  education,  or  amusement, 
such  as  churches  and  synagogues,  schools  and  colleges, 
concert-  and  lecture-halls,  circuses  and  theatres.  I 
shall  restrict  my  remarks  to  theatres,  although  much 
of  what  I  will  say  applies  equally  to  the  other  classes 
of  buildings  named.  The  prevention  of  theatre-fire 
calamities  is  a  subject  in  which  not  only  firemen  but 
the  general  public  are,  or  ought  to  be,  interested. 

In  the  planning  and  construction  of  theatre  build- 
ings, even  more  than  in  other  buildings,  the  combined 
skill,  knowledge,  and  talent  of  both  the  architect  and 
the  engineer  are  necessary  to  create  a  model  and  safe 
structure.  While  the  architect  works  out  the  best  plan 
on  the  available  site,  determines  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  divisions  of  the  building,  decides  the 
mode  of  construction,  designs  the  elevation,  and 
selects  the  decorative  treatment  of  the  interior,  he  is 
assisted  by  the  engineer  or  by  specialists  in  the  vari- 
ous engineering  branches  in  the  solution  of  intricate 

enumeration  of  the  duties  of  firemen.  As  in  medicine  there  are  two 
views,  the  one  being  the  cure  of  disease,  and  the  other  one,  which  I 
consider  the  higher  aim,  the  prevention  of  disease;  just  so,  I  hold,  are 
fire  departments  and  firemen  concerned  not  only  with  the  extinguish- 
ment of  fires  and  with  the  saving  of  life  and  property,  but  likewise, 
and  to  even  a  higher  degree,  with  the  prevention  of  fires. 

"  About  fire-fighting  it  would  be  presumptuous  on  my  part  to  speak 
to  you,  for  that  is  not  in  my  line,  and  I  would  not  be  qualified  to  speak 
on  the  subject  to  you,  many  of  whom  have  spent  the  best  part  of  an 
active  life  in  the  battle  with  fire  and  smoke.  The  subject  which  I 
have  chosen  for  my  paper  concerns  the  prevention  of  fire  and  calami- 
ties incidental  thereto  in  a  class  of  public  buildings  where  large  crowds 
gather  nightly  for  amusement's  sake." 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  3 

problems  requiring  special  expert  knowledge,  such  as 
the  construction  of  difficult  foundations,  the  calculation 
and  the  working  out  of  details  of  all  iron  construc- 
tions, the  design  of  the  mechanical  or  power  plant, 
comprising  steam-boilers,  engines,  dynamos,  hoist- 
ing and  general  stage  machinery,  the  heating  and 
ventilation  of  the  building,  the  gas-lighting  and  the 
electric-lighting  system,  the  plumbing,  drainage,  and 
water-supply,  the  arrangement  of  the  toilet-rooms,  the 
general  sanitation,  and  finally  the  fire  protection  of  the 
theatre. 

It  is  because  I  have  had  the  good  fortune  of  being 
associated  in  my  own  branch  of  engineering  with 
architects  of  the  highest  standing  in  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  *  some  recent  theatre  buildings,  and 
also  because,  by  inclination,  I  have,  for  years,  made 
the  question  of  the  safety  of  theatres  a  special  study, 
that  I  venture  to  publish  the  following  remarks  about 
theatre-fire  catastrophes  and  their  prevention,  in  the 
hope  that  they  will  be  helpful  in  preventing  the  re- 
currence of  disasters  similar  to  those  related  herein. 

Theatre-Fire  Statistics. 

It  may  be  well  to  begin  by  giving  briefly  a  few 
statistics  regarding  theatre  fires  and  their  causes. 
Here  we  at  once  encounter  much  difficulty  in  gathering 
and  presenting  accurate  and  reliable  figures  and  facts. 

There  are  numerous  cases  in  which  a  fire  breaking 
out  in  a  theatre,  on  the  stage,  in  the  auditorium,  or 
elsewhere,  is  at  once  extinguished  by  the  stage  hands, 
or  by  the  firemen  on  duty  in  the  building.  Many 


4  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

cases  of  this  kind  never  become  known  to  the  public 
or  to  the  press,  and  no  accurate  record  is  kept  of 
them.  In  other  instances,  again,  blind  fire-alarms  are 
followed  by  a  panic  and  often  by  loss  of  life.  When 
a  fire  in  a  theatre  breaks  out  during  the  night  and 
destroys  the  building  the  cause  of  the  same  often 
forever  afterwards  remains  a  mystery.  Distinction 
must  be  made  between  occasional  outbreaks  of  fire 
which  are  subdued  before  it  can  spread,  and  such  fires 
which  completely  destroy  the  building.  The  data 
given  below  refer  only  to  theatres  which  are  entirely 
burnt  down. 

Those  fires  which  break  out  during  a  performance, 
when  the  building  is  crowded  with  people,  are  nat- 
urally the  ones  of  greatest  interest  to  us.  If  accom- 
panied, as  they  unfortunately  often  are,  with  loss  of 
life,  the  number  of  persons  killed  and  wounded  is  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  with  absolute  accuracy,  as  many 
perish  in  the  building  who  are  not  missed  by  friends 
or  relatives.  The  tendency  in  these  cases  is  usually 
for  the  press  to  exaggerate  the  number  of  victims, 
whereas  on  the  other  hand  the  theatre  officials  or  the 
municipality  often  try  to  keep  the  figures  below  the 
actual  number.  The  curious  mistake  is  sometimes 
made  of  counting  both  the  dead  and  the  wounded  in 
the  same  figure  of  victims,  obtaining  thereby  largely 
increased  and  incorrect  figures. 

We  are  principally  indebted  for  theatre-fire  statis- 
tics to  the  works  of  Herr  August  Foelsch,  a  German 
civil  engineer,  recently  deceased;  of  Herr  Franz  Gilar- 
done,  a  retired  German  fireman;  of  Capt.  Shaw,  of 
the  London  Fire  Brigade;  to  Dr.  Choquet,  physi- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  5 

cian  to  a  French  life-insurance  company,  and  to  the 
labors  and  reports  of  John  C.  Hexamer,  Esq.,  a  civil 
engineer  and  insurance  surveyor,  of  Philadelphia. 
Their  figures  and  statistics  do  not  by  any  means  agree, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  discrepancies. 
Taking  the  work  of  Herr  Foelsch  as,  on  the  whole, 
the  most  complete  and  reliable  guide, — although  it  is 
not  brought  quite  up  to  date,  being  published  in  1878, 
with  a  supplement  issued  in  1882,  shortly  after  the 
Vienna  Ring  Theatre  fire, — we  find  a  list  of  516 
theatres  enumerated,  which  up  to  and  including  the 
year  1877  were  completely  destroyed  by  fire.* 

Out  of  these,  460  theatres  were  burnt  in  100  years. 
The  list  contains  of  theatres  in  the  principal  cities  the 
following: 

London 31  Boston II  Venice 6 

Paris 29  Glasgow n  Baltimore 6 

New  Yorkf 26  Cincinnati..   ...    9  Cologne 5 

San  Francisco.. ..  21  New  Orleans. ..     8  Edinburgh 4 

Philadelphia....  17  Bordeaux 7 

Among  the  5 16  theatres  we  find — 

37  theatres  which  were  burnt  twice. 

8        "  "          "         "      three  times.  £ 

4       "  "          "         "      four  times. 

i  theatre  (the  Bowery  Theatre  in  New  York)  which  was  burnt  fi^r€ 
times;  also  one  theatre  in  Spain,  which  burnt  down  seven  times. 


*  This  figure  in  the  supplemental  edition  to  the  work  of  1882  was 
corrected  to  523. 

f  Since  1821  up  to  the  present  time  29  theatres  have  burnt  down  in 
New  York  City. 


6  THEATRE  FIRES  AND  PANICS: 

Regarding  the  average  life  of  theatres,  the  records 
are  confined  to  252  theatres,  and  show  that — 

5  theatres  burnt  down  before  the  opening; 
70         "  "     in  the  first  5  years  after  opening; 

38         "          "  "     between  6-10    "        "  " 

45         «          "  "  "      11-20    " 

27         "          "  "  "      21-30    " 

12         "          "  "  "      31-40    " 

20  "  "  "  "       41-50     "  "  " 

17      "       "       "        »    51-60  " 

7  "          "  "  "      61-80    " 

8  "          "  "  "      81-100  " 

3         "          "  "     after  over  ico  years'  existence. 

Total 252 

Out  of  a  total  of  252  theatres,  70,  or  more  than 
one  fourth  of  them,  are  destroyed  before  they  reach  an 
age  of  5  years.  Theatres,  therefore,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
attain  an  old  age,  and  Herr  Foelsch  figures  the  average 
ageof  these252  theatres  as  22f  years.  For  the  United 
States  the  average  life  of  a  theatre  is  said  to  be  only 
from  II  to  13  years,  but  it  should  be  remarked  that 
these  figures  were  reached  some  years  ago,  before  the 
stricter  theatre  laws  of  some  of  our  large  cities  (New 
York  and  Boston,  and  quite  recently  Brooklyn  and 
Philadelphia)  were  enacted. 

Recent  analytical  studies  of  the  question  have 
elicited  the  fact  that  there  are  two  periods  in  the  life 
of  a  theatre  building,  when  it  is  most  endangered  or 
subject  to  destruction  by  fire,  namely,  one  from  the 
time  of  its  construction  up  to  .and  including  the  first 
five  years,  and  the  second  period,  after  the  theatre  has 
been  opened  from  40  to  50  years.  This-  may  be  ex- 
plained, first,  by  the  fact  that  in  a  new  theatre  the 
safety  appliances,  the  arrangements  for  lighting,  the 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  ? 

scene-hoisting  devices,  the  fire-protection  appliances, 
are  rarely  in  perfect  working  order,  and  the  theatre 
employes  have  not  as  yet  become  accustomed  to  hand- 
ling them,  and  are  likewise  unfamiliar  with  the  rules  of 
management. 

The  second  period  of  renewed  danger  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  after  the  number  of  years  quoted 
above  much  of  the  apparatus  in  a  theatre  has  become 
worn  out  or  useless,  and  is  not  always  kept  in  repair 
or  replaced  by  new  apparatus,  and  it  may  also  be 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  after  the  lapse  of  many 
years  the  theatre  management  and  inspection  are  apt 
to  be  less  strict,  and  that  often  interior  alterations  are 
made  which  unfavorably  affect  the  safety  of  the  build- 
ing. 

From  the  middle  of  the  last  century  to  our  present 
day  nineteen  theatres  on  the  average  have  been  de- 
stroyed annually  by  fire.  For  those  who  are  interested 
in  more  detailed  figures,  I  quote  the  statistics  gathered 
by  Herr  Foelsch  and  Dr.  Choquet,  the  latter's  figures 
being  placed  in  brackets. 
In  the  years  1751-1760  there  were  4  theatre  fires  in  all  countries. 


1761-1770 

8 

i77I~I78o 

9  (ii) 

1781-1790 

"    ii  (13) 

1791-1800 

13  (15) 

1801-1810 

17 

1811-1820 

16  (18) 

1821-1830 

30  (32) 

1831-1840 

25  (30) 

1841-1850 

43  (54) 

1851-1860 

"    69  (76) 

1861-1870 

99  (!03) 

1871-1880 

"   181  (169) 

1881-1885 

(174) 

8  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Taking  each  year  from  1871  we  have  the  following 
numbers  : 

In  1871  there  were  20  theatres  destroyed. 


"  1874  "  15 

"  1875  "  14 

"  1876  "  19 

"  1877  "  17       "      " 

"  1878      "     20          "        " 
"  1879      "     25 
"  1880      "     23 

"  1881    "    28 

"  1882    "    25  (37)    "      " 

"  1883      "      22  "        " 

"  1884  "  9  (40) 

"  1885  "  9       «« 

"  1886  "  7  (8) 

"  1887  "  12  (18) 

"  1888  "  15       "      "(up  to  Nov.) 

The  fire  loss  represented  by  these  figures  reaches 
many  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  property. 

The  hour  of  the  day  in  which  the  above  theatre  fires 
started  is  of  considerable  interest.  Out  of  289  fires^  — 

56  theatres  burnt  during  the  day  between  7  a.m. 

and  the  afternoon,  or  .......  19.4  per  cent. 

15         "          "       one  hour  before  beginning  of 

performance,  or  ...........     5.2     "     " 

36         "          "        during  performance,  or  .......  12.4     "     " 

66         "          "       within  two  hours  after  close  of 

performance,  or  ............  23.9     "     " 

113         "          "       during  the  night  and  before  7 

a.m.  next  morning,  or  ......  39.1     "     " 

Later  on,  when  the  records  of  373  theatre  fires  were 
available,  Herr  Foelsch  found  this  percentage  to 


THEIR  CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  $ 

remain  nearly  the  same,  viz.:  19.9,  5.6,  n.6,  22.6, 
and  40.3  per  cent,  respectively.  It  will  be  seen  from 
these  figures  that  the  greatest  danger  from  fire  to  a 
theatre  is  during  the  two  hours  following  a  perform- 
ance, and  not  during  the  performance,  as  would 
naturally  be  supposed.  The  reason  for  this  is  partly, 
that  during  the  performance  greater  watchfulness 
exists  as  regards  open  lights,  the  sources  of  heat,  and 
the  other  usual  causes  of  fire,  and  partly  because  many 
fires  while  actually  started  during  a  performance,  for 
instance,  by  carelessness  in  the  use  of  fireworks,  or  by 
the  use  of  firearms,  do  not  break  out  at  once,  but 
smoulder  for  a  while  in  the  inflammable  scenery  and 
woodwork  of  the  stage,  and  break  out  during  the 
hours  following  the  performance.  The  risk  from  fire 
immediately  before  the  performance  and  while  the 
audience  is  admitted  is  found  to  be  three  times  as 
great  as  during  other  hours  of  the  day,  which  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  at  this  time  the  gas  flames  are 
lit  which  illuminate  the  scenery. 

Theatres  are,  therefore,  safest  in  the  day-time;  the 
danger  is  increased  threefold  during  preparations  before 
the  performance,  because  of  lighting  up,  etc. ;  it  is 
reduced  during  the  performance  on  account  of  the 
careful  inspection  and  greater  watchfulness  on  the 
stage,  but  is  still  two  times  as  large  as  during  the  day ; 
the  danger  reaches  a  maximum  (7  times  the  day  risk) 
during  the  two  hours  after  the  close  of  the  perform- 
ance, and  it  remains  during  the  night  nearly  3^  times 
as  great  as  during  the  day  (sparks  from  fireworks  or 
pistol  wads  may  remain  glowing  for  hours  after  the 
performance). 


10  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

The  theatre  fires  which  break  out  during  the  per- 
formance are  often  accompanied  with  loss  of  life  of 
both  spectators  and  actors,  and  are  therefore  of  par- 
ticular though  sad  interest  to  us.  The  life  of  firemen 
is  often  greatly  endangered  at  theatre  fires  at  all  hours, 
and  the  list  of  instances  where  firemen  have  been  killed 
while  engaged  in  their  duty  in  trying  to  save  burning 
theatres  is  quite  large. 

Herr  Foelsch  describes  in  detail  36  theatre  fires 
between  1770  and  1877  which  began  during  the  per- 
formance, and  out  of  this  number  not  less  than  six 
were  accompanied  by  appalling  loss  of  life.  From 
1877  to  1889  six  other  deplorable  theatre  calamities 
have  taken  place.  In  the  twelve  years  from  1876  to 
1888  not  less  than  1600  people  were  killed  in  the  six 
well-known  theatre  disasters  of  Brooklyn,  Nice, 
Vienna,  Paris,  Exeter,  and  Oporto,  nearly  all  of  the 
victims  being  dead  within  ten  minutes  from  the  time 
when  the  flames  and  the  smoke  from  the  stage  reached 
the  auditorium  and  the  galleries. 

Dr.  Choquet,  in  his  statistics,  enumerates  a  total  of 
732  theatres  destroyed  by  fire  from  1751  to  1885, 
with  a  total  number  of  victims,  i.e.,  both  killed  and 
wounded,  of  6573.  This  list  includes  fires  where  fire- 
men lost  their  lives  in  the  performance  of  their  duty. 
Since  the  beginning  of  this  century  536  theatre  fires 
occurred,  and  from  4500  to  5000  persons  were  killed 
or  wounded. 

Here  are  in  detail,  in  periods  of  ten  years,  some  of 
the  figures  of  victims  of  theatre-fire  calamities  given  by 
Dr.  Choquet: 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION. 


II 


In  the 

years  1751-1760, 

10  victims. 

" 

"      1761-1770, 

4 

" 

"      1771-1780, 

154 

« 

"      1781-1790, 

21          " 

tt 

"      1791-1800, 

IOIO          " 

" 

"      1801-1810, 

37 

" 

"      1811-1820, 

85       " 

'« 

"       1821-1830, 

105        " 

" 

"      1831-1840, 

813       " 

"      1841-1850, 

2114       " 

M 

"      1851-1860, 

241 

" 

"      1861-1870, 

104       " 

M 

"      1871-1880, 

1217       " 

1881-1885,      628 


In  the  year  1887, 

"          "  1888, 

"  1887, 

"  1892, 


(Amsterdam,  1772,  25  d.; 
Saragossa,  1778,  77  d.,  52  w.) 

(Capo  d'Istria,  1794,  1000  v.) 

(Richmond,  Va.,  1811,  72  v.) 
(Philadelphia,  1829,  97  v.) 
(St.  Petersburg,  1836,  800  v.) 
(Canton,  1845,  1670  v.; 

Carlsruhe,  1847,  63  d.,  203  w.  ; 

Quebec,  1846,  200  v.) 
(Livorno,  1857,  43  d.,  134  w.) 

(Ahmednuggur,  1878,  40  v.  ; 

Brooklyn,  1876,  283  v.  ; 

Shanghai,  1871,  I2OV.; 

Sacramento,  1876,  no  v.) 
(Nice,  1881,  70  v.; 
Richmond,  (State?)  1885,  ioov.; 

Vienna,  1881,  450  v.) 


Paris,     150       " 
Oporto,  140       " 
Exeter,  200       " 
Philadelphia,   Central 
wounded. 


Theatre,  several  dead  and 


Before  proceeding  to  study  the  causes  of  theatre 
fires,  I  will  give  a  brief  list  of  twelve  prominent  theatre- 
fire  calamities  of  this  century,  the  horrors  of  many  of 
which  are  probably  fresh  in  the  minds  of  some  of  my 
readers. 


12  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

List  of  Twelve  Prominent  Theatre  Fire  Calamities 
of  this  Century. 

I.    Theatre  in  Richmond,  Va. 

Date:  December  26,  1811. 

Time  of  fire:  During  the  last  act  of  the  evening 
performance. 

Number  of  people  in  audience:  About  600. 

Cause  of  fire :  Careless  hoisting  of  a  stage  chandelier 
with  lighted  candles,  whereby  a  border  became  ignited. 
Panic,  jam  at  exits. 

Number  of  victims:  Seventy  persons  killed,  many 
injured. 

No  data  available  as  to  location,  plan,  construction, 
and  equipment. 

2.  Lehmann  Theatre  and  Circus  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia. 

Date:  February  14,  1836. 

Time  of  fire:  During  the  afternoon  performance,  at 
4  o'clock. 

Number  of  people  in  audience  unknown. 

Cause  of  fire:  Stage-lamp,  hung  too  high,  ignited 
the  stage  roof.  Panic,  jam  at  exits. 

Number  of  victims:  About  800  persons  killed. 

Location :  In  an  open  square. 

Construction :  Temporary  wooden  structure. 

Exits  obstructed  by  the  panic-stricken  crowd. 

j.  Royal  Theatre  at  Quebec,  Canada. 
Date:  June  12,  1846. 
Time  of  fire  not  stated. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  13 

Number  of  people  in  audience  unknown. 

Cause  of  fire :  The  upsetting  of  a  lamp  on  the  stage 
ignited  a  wing. 

Number  of  persons  killed:  About  100. 

Construction:  Of  combustible  material. 

Chief  defects:  Insufficient  exits,  narrow  stairs;  one 
wooden  staircase  broke  from  over-weight  of  the  crowd, 
and  thereby  obstructed  one  of  the  exit  doors. 

4..   Grand  Ducal  Theatre,  at  Carlsruhe,  Baden,   Ger- 
many. 

Date:  February  28,  1847. 

Time  of  fire:  Just  before  beginning  of  evening  per- 
formance. 

Number  of  people  in  audience:  About  2000. 

Cause  of  fire:  The  careless  lighting  up  of  the  gas 
lights  in  the  Grand  Ducal  box  ignited  the  draperies. 

Number  of  victims:  63  persons  dead  and  200  in- 
jured. 

Location :   Entirely  free  on  an  open  square. 

Construction:  Wooden  interior;  the  four  exits  or- 
dinarily effected  the  emptying  of  the  house  in  six 
minutes. 

Chief  defects:  The  main  entrance  to  the  theatre 
was  bricked  up  (!).  Of  the  four  exits  mentioned  only 
ONE  was  open;  the  other  three  were  locked  and 
barricaded.  The  gas  was  turned  off  in  the  street  after 
the  fire  broke  out,  but  the  oil-lamps  in  corridors  were 
kept  burning.  The  occupants  of  the  parquet  and  of 
the  balconies  escaped.  Most  of  the  victims  were 
gallery  spectators,  who  became  suffocated  by  smoke. 
Many  were  saved  by  breaking  in  the  locked  exit  doors. 


14  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

5.    Teatro  degli  Aquidotti,  Leghorn,  Italy. 

Date:  June  7,  1857. 

Time  of  fire:  About  8  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

Number  of  people  in  the  audience:  About  3000. 

Cause  of  fire:  A  rocket,  part  of  fireworks  on  the 
stage,  ignited  the  scenic  decorations. 

Number  of  victims:  From  43  to  100  killed,  and  134 
to  200  injured.  No  details. 

6.   Conway '  s   Theatre,  Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Date:  Decembers,  1876. 

Time  of  fire:  During  the  last  act  of  the  performance 
of  "  The  Two  Orphans." 

Number  of  people  in  audience:  About  1000,  viz., 
250  in  parquet,  350  in  balcony,  405  in  the  gallery. 

Cause  of  fire :  A  border  caught  fire  from  the  border- 
lights,  perhaps  owing  to  a  sudden  draft,  caused  by 
opening  a  window.  The  fire  was  increased  by  the 
opening  of  a  large  door  at  the  back  of  the  stage. 

Number  of  persons  killed:  283,  all  from  the  upper 
gallery. 

Location :  Building  stood  detached  on  three  sides. 

Construction:  Ordinary,  but  with  well-arranged 
exits,  permitting  the  emptying  of  the  theatre  in  from 
5  to  6  minutes. 

Plan  of  theatre:  Considered  comparatively  good  at 
the  time. 

Chief  defects:  No  fire-proof  curtain,  no  water  avail- 
able for  fire  purposes.  No  fire-hose  at  the  fire-hy- 
drants, nor  any  other  fire-extinguishing  appliances 
available.  Auxiliary  exit  doors  for  the  gallery  kept 
closed.  Only  one  staircase  for  the  gallery.  Stage 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  I <j 

overcrowded  with  scenery.  Loft  over  the  auditorium 
filled  with  much  inflammable  scenic  material.  Pro- 
scenium of  wood.  During  fire  the  gas  was  turned  off 
in  the  street. 

7.  Theatre  Municipal,  at  Nice,  Italy. 

Date:  March  23,  1881. 

Time  of  fire:  At  8.30  in  the  evening,  immediately 
before  the  beginning  of  the  performance. 

Number  of  people  in  audience  not  known. 

Cause  of  fire:  In  lighting  the  border-lights,  an  ex- 
plosion of  gas  took  place,  igniting  at  once  the  scenic 
decorations. 

Number  of  persons  killed:  From  150  to  2OO,  nearly 
all  from  the  upper  gallery. 

Location:  In  an  open  square. 

Construction:  Substantial. 

Plan  and  arrangement:  Fairly  good. 

Chief  defects:  No  fire-proof  curtain,  no  oil-lamps  in 
corridors  and  exits.  Auxiliary  exit  door  from  gallery 
to  the  safety  stairs  could  not  be  found  on  account  of 
darkness,  the  gas-lights  having  been  extinguished. 
The  lower  part  of  the  gallery  stairs  steep,  and  with 
winding  steps.  The  exit  doors  obstructed  by  the 
jam. 

8.  Ring  Theatre,  at  Vienna,  Austria. 

Date:  Decembers,  1881. 

Time  of  fire:  About  6.45  in  the  evening,  just  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  the  performance. 

Number  of  people  in  the  audience:  About  1800. 
Cause  of  fire:  The  careless  lighting  of  the  border- 


1 6  THEATRE  FIRES  AMD   PANICS: 

lights  by  means  of  an  alcohol  torch  (the  usual  electric 
flash-light  apparatus  being  out  of  order)  ignited  a 
hanging  border. 

Number  of  persons  killed :  At  least  450,  many  from 
the  upper  gallery. 

Location :  Standing  free  on  three  sides. 

Construction :  Substantial,  but  stairways  bad. 

Plan  and  arrangement :   defective. 

Chief  defects:  Iron  fire-proof  curtain  could  only  be 
lowered  from  the  rigging  loft,  and  could  not  be  lowered 
at  all  at  the  time  of  the  fire.  Special  exit  doors 
locked,  keys  and  locks  rusty.  Gas-lights  extinguished, 
oil-lamps  provided  in  corridors,  but  not  lighted.  The 
exits  insufficient,  and  obstructed  by  the  jam.  This 
fire  was  very  similar  to  the  Brooklyn  Theatre  fire. 
The  fire  caught  in  each  case  among  the  flies,  from  a 
border-light.  The  bursting  open  of  a  large  door  in 
rear  of  stage  let  in  a  blast  of  air,  which  drove  the 
flames  and  the  suffocating  fire  smoke  through  the  pro- 
scenium opening  into  the  auditorium. 

p.   Circus  Ferroni,  af  Berditscheff,  in  Russian  Poland. 

Date:  January  13,  1883. 

Time  of  fire:  During  evening  performance. 

Number  of  people  in  the  audience:  About  600. 

Cause  of  fire :  A  stableman  working  in  the  stable 
adjoining  the  circus  was  smoking  a  cigarette  and  was 
lying  on  straw  which  ignited ;  a  fellow  laborer  ran  for 
a  pail  of  water  and  left  a  door  open,  which  created  a 
strong  draft  and  thus  fed  the  flames.  Inside  of  twenty 
minutes  the  whole  circus  stood  in  flames. 

Number    of    victims:    Official    figure    268    persons 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  1? 

burnt  to  death;  other  reports  state  430  dead,  80 
mortally  injured,  100  persons  missing.  Many  children 
crushed  and  suffocated  in  the  jam  of  people.  Both 
stable  laborers  who  caused  the  fire  burnt  to  death;  27 
horses  and  1 1  trained  dogs  burnt. 

Construction  of  building:  Of  double  walls  of  wood, 
with  an  interior  filling  of  straw  ( !)  between  the  boards 
as  a  protection  against  the  cold.  No  safety  measures 
against  fire.  One  safety  exit,  but  not  known  to  the 
public.  Owing  to  the  extreme  cold  weather  there  was 
scarcity  of  water,  and  a  fire  engine,  in  running  to  the 
fire,  was  delayed  by  breaking  through  the  ice. 

10.   Opera  Comique  Theatre,  Paris,  France. 

Date:  May  25,  1887. 

Time  of  fire:  About  9  P.M. 

Number  of  people  in  audience,  About  1600. 

Cause  of  fire:  Scenery  ignited  from  the  gas-lights. 

Number  of  persons  killed:  From  70  to  no,  largely 
from  the  upper  gallery,  and  stage  people. 

Location :  Standing  free  on  three  sides. 

Construction:  Good,  although  not  fire-resisting. 

Plan  and  arrangement:  faulty. 

Chief  defects :  Exits  for  about  half  the  stage  people 
over  a  narrow  wooden  bridge  over  upper  part  of  stage. 
Iron  curtain  not  lowered;  fire-hydrants  not  used;  gas 
extinguished  in  the  exits  and  corridors. 

ii.  Exeter  Theatre,  Exeter,  England. 

Date:  September  5,  1887. 

Time  of  fire:  During  evening  performance. 

Number  of  people  in  audience  not  stated. 


1 8  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Cause  of  fire :  Scenery  caught  fire  from  the  gas-lights. 

Number  of  persons  killed:  From  166  to  200,  mostly 
from  the  upper  gallery. 

Location:  In  an  open  square. 

Construction:  Bad. 

Plan  and  arrangement:  Fairly  good,  but  the  upper 
gallery  had  only  one  exit,  which  was  badly  arranged 
and  obstructed. 

Chief  defects:  No  fire  curtain;  insufficient  fire  ap- 
pliances on  stage;  stage  overloaded  with  scenery; 
insufficient  and  badly  arranged  exits. 

12.    Theatre  at  Oporto,  Portugal. 

Date:  March  31,  1888. 

Cause  of  fire :  A  rope  in  the  rigging  loft  came  too 
near  the  border-lights  and  caught  fire,  which  quickly 
spread.  A  panic  broke  out,  and  the  safety  exits  being 
closed  a  jam  resulted  in  the  corridors.  Many  persons 
jumped  to  the  street  from  the  windows,  others  followed 
on  top  of  those  lying  wounded  and  killed  in  the  street. 
Sailors  and  marine  soldiers  in  the  upper  gallery  are 
said  to  have  used  their  knives  to  kill  persons  standing 
in  their  way. 

Number  of  victims:  240  persons. 

Chief  defects:  Theatre  built  entirely  of  wood;  all 
stage  gas-lights  were  open  and  unprotected  lights. 
No  safety  appliances  of  any  kind. 

It  may  be  noted  that  in  nearly  all  the  catastrophes 
briefly  described  fire  broke  out  high  up  in  the  inflam- 
mable scenery  near  the  borders,  and  was  caused  by 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  t$ 

gas-lights  coming  into  contact  with  the  combustible 
scenery. 

Besides  the  twelve  theatre  fires  briefly  mentioned, 
in  which  alone  about  3000  people  lost  their  lives,  there 
is  a  large  list  of  other  fires,  full  of  horrors,  about 
which,  however,  the  details  are  meagre. 

Among  these  I  mention  the  fire  in  a  theatre  at 
Canton,  China,  on  May  25,  1845,  where  1670  persons 
are  said  to  have  perished ;  the  fire  of  the  theatre  at 
Whampoa,  China,  in  1853,  caused  by  fireworks,  and 
killing  30  persons;  the  theatre  at  Tientsin,  China, 
burnt  in  May,  1872,  with  600  persons  dead;  the  fire 
at  a  theatre  in  Ahmednuggur,  East  India,  on  May  n, 
1878,  when  40  persons  were  killed;  the  fire  of  the 
Gayety  Theatre,  in  Milwaukee,  on  November  15, 
1869,  caused  by  the  upsetting  of  a  kerosene  lamp  on 
the  stage,  whereby  2  persons  were  burnt  to  death,  and 
about  30  injured;  the  fire  in  a  theatre  at  Tschernigow, 
Russia,  on  December  24,  1882,  caused  by  a  gas-meter 
explosion,  and  resulting  in  a  panic,  wherein  several 
people  were  killed  and  100  injured;  the  theatre  fire 
at  Dervio,  Como,  Italy,  on  June  25,  1883,  where  47 
persons  lost  their  lives;  and  the  fire  at  the  Central 
Theatre,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1892,  causing  the 
death  of  several  persons. 

Again,  there  are  numerous  instances  of  large  loss  of 
life  during  panics  in  public  halls  and  places  of  assem- 
bly, of  which  I  will  mention  only  the  panic  at  the 
Victoria  Hall,  in  Sunderland,  England,  where,  of  2000 
children  present,  183  were  crushed  and  trampled  to 
death;  and  the  panic  in  a  circus  at  Richmond,  (State?) 
in  1885,  whereby  100  persons  were  killed. 


20  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Causes  of  Theatre  Fires. 

Before  discussing  the  precautions  necessary  for  pre- 
vention, let  us  inquire  briefly  into  the  chief  causes  of 
theatre  fires  and  calamities.  This  study  of  the  causes 
leading  to  fires  and  panics  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
because  it  enables  us  to  derive  therefrom  the  best 
practical  lessons  as  to  what  to  do,  and  what  to  avoid, 
to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  a  disaster. 

Dr.  Choquet,  in  discussing  the  causes  of  theatre 
fires,  divides  them  into  two  principal  groups,  viz. : 

1.  The  intentional  causes,  or  incendiarism;  and 

2.  The  accidental  causes. 

Leaving  incendiarism,  from  malice  or  other  reason, 
out  of  consideration,  we  can  distinguish  further  be- 
tween— 

1.  Exterior   causes,    such   as  lightning,   exposure, 
dangerous  trades  carried  on  in  the  vicinity  of  a  theatre, 
bombardment  of  the  city,  or  riots. 

2.  Interior  causes,  viz. : 

a.  On  the  stage ; 

b.  In  the  auditorium ; 

c.  In  other  parts  of  the  house. 

3.  Mixed  causes,  such  as  fires  originating  in  living 
apartments,    or   in   stores,   or  offices,   or   restaurants, 
under  the  same  roof  with  the  theatre  proper. 

Placed  in  the  order  of  their  frequency,  we  find 
theatre  fires  to  have  their  origin — 

1.  On  the  stage; 

2.  In  the  actor's  dressing-rooms,  in  the  engine  and 
boiler-room,   in  the  cellar,  and  in  the  administrative 
offices; 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  21 

3.  In  stores,  offices,  living  apartments,  or  restau- 
rant kitchens  in  the  theatre; 

4.  In  the  auditorium ; 

5.  In  outside  causes,  such  as  exposure  to  neighbor- 
ing buildings  on  fire. 

In  not  a  few  cases  the  exact  cause  of  a  theatre  fire 
remains  forever  unknown.  This  is  due  largely  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  flames  spread  among  the  vast 
mass  of  combustible  material,  and  to  the  haste  and 
confusion  incident  to  the  fire,  particularly  when  this 
breaks  out  during  the  night-time.  The  best  informa- 
tion about  causes  of  theatre  fires  is  derived  from  those 
fires  which  break  out  during  a  performance,  and  which, 
for  obvious  reasons,  are  the  most  dangerous,  and  often 
lead  to  deplorable  calamities. 

The  majority  of  fires  during  performances  breakout 
on  the  stage,  and  are  due  to  open  and  unprotected, 
or  to  deficiently  protected,  lights  in  too  close  prox- 
imity to,  or  amidst  a  mass  of,  unprotected  and  highly 
inflammable  scenery,  draperies,  gauze,  ropes,  and 
woodwork.  Among  numerous  other  causes  I  mention : 

The  careless  lighting  of  gas-lights  on  the  stage,  by 
alcohol-lamps  on  long  poles,  and  sometimes  defects  in 
the  electric  spark  or  flash-light  apparatus,  causing 
escapes  of  gas  or  gas  explosions ; 

Carelessness  in  the  use  of  lamps  on  the  stage  or  in 
the  dressing-rooms,  or  exposure  of  lamps  to  sudden 
drafts ; 

Careless  handling  of  candle-lights  in  dressing-rooms; 

Alcohol-lamps  used  by  actresses  for  heating  hair- 
curling  irons  in  the  dressing-rooms; 


22  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Sparks  dropping  from  torches  used  to  light  the  gas 
flames  on  the  stage,  or  on  decorations  or  papers; 

Temporary  gas  conduits  needed  on  the  stage,  gen- 
erally consisting  of  rubber  tubing,  becoming  leaky,  or 
not  being  well  jointed  together,  or  becoming  otherwise 
damaged  and  defective; 

The  use  of  portable  open  gas-burners  near  movable 
scenery ; 

The  use  of  defective  gas-burners  and  gas-fittings; 

Exposed  gas-pipes  damaged  by  the  shifting  or  carry- 
ing about  of  heavy  pieces  of  scenery  or  furniture; 

Main  gas-pipes  becoming  leaky,  and  causing  escapes 
of  gas ; 

Gas  explosions  in  the  gas-meter  vault,  or  elsewhere ; 

Swinging  gas  brackets  setting  woodwork  or  scenery 
or  curtains  on  fire ; 

Lights  other  than  gas-lights  are  often  worse;  the 
upsetting  of  coal-oil  or  kerosene  lamps  and  the  explo- 
sion of  such  lamps  are  fruitful  causes  of  fire. 

The  electric  light,  finally,  although  the  safest  com- 
paratively of  all  lights,  may  cause  fire  by  reason  of 
electric-light  wires  not  being  properly  insulated,  or 
being  faultily  installed. 

The  careless  use  of  matches;  other  than  safety- 
matches,  throwing  away  of  lighted  matches,  and  rats 
or  mice  gnawing  phosphorous  matches  in  hidden 
recesses,  are  among  the  causes  of  fires; 

The  smoking  of  tobacco,  cigars,  cigarettes,  as  well 
as  pipes,  and  the  careless  throwing  away  of  lighted 
cigars  or  cigarettes  in  dressing-rooms  or  on  the  stage 
or  in  the  sub-basement; 

The  careless  use  of  the  oxy  hydrogen  or  lime  light; 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  2$ 

The  use  of  fireworks  in  spectacular  plays  calculated 
to  attract  the  public;  the  use  of  red  fires,  torches, 
Roman  candles,  the  firing  of  rockets, — are  dangerous 
causes  of  fire,  because  a  spark  often  lodges  amidst 
scenery,  and  the  flames  break  out  during  the  night  fol- 
lowing the  performance; 

Sometimes  fireworks  are  prepared  for  the  play  in 
the  theatre  building,  which  is  a  pernicious  practice; 

The  representation  of  fire  or  conflagrations  or  actual 
explosions  in  the  course  of  the  play,  the  firing  of  fire- 
arms, such  as  pistols,  or  guns,  with  paper  wads ; 

The  careless  handling  and  use  of  benzine  or  turpen- 
tine in  workshops  and  costume-rooms; 

The  heating-apparatus,  particularly  stoves  and  fur- 
naces when  overheated  during  extreme  cold  weather; 

Defective  flues,  and  timber  near  woodwork; 

Floor  registers  and  heat  flues;  hot  ashes; 

The  use  of  straw  or  hay  on  the  stage ; 

The  careless  use  of  soldering  furnaces  on  tin  theatre 
roofs ; 

Gauze  dresses  of  ballet-dancers  catching  fire  and  in 
turn  setting  decorations  on  fire; 

Non-removal  of  rubbish  and  trade  refuse,  and  accu- 
mulation of  large  masses  of  combustible  material, 
woodwork,  canvas,  gauze,  pasteboard,  hemp  ropes, 
paper  with  varnish,  so-called  properties,  etc.,  on  the 
stage; 

The  use  of  rooms  in  the  theatre,  in  the  basement  or 
in  the  loft  over  the  auditorium,  or  even  of  the  stage, 
as  painter's  or  carpenter's  shop; 

The    spontaneous   combustion    of   heaps    of  waste 


24  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

material,  of  oily  rags  used  for  cleaning  lamps,  or  of 
waste  in  engine  or  dynamo  room ; 

The  action  of  rays  of  the  sun  concentrated  by  win- 
dow glass  or  lenses ; 

Carelessness  in  the  necessarily  quick  moving  or  shift- 
ing of  inflammable  scenery  near  the  innumerable  gas- 
lights; 

The  drying  up  of  woodwork  on  the  stage  by  the 
heat  due  to  the  numerous  lights. 

As  indirect  causes  of  fire  I  may,  lastly,  mention: 

An  undesirable  site,  the  danger  from  contiguous  or 
adjacent  houses  and  property ; 

The  bad  arrangement  of  the  plan ; 

The  use  of  bad  materials  in  construction; 

Defective  general  system  of  construction  without 
division  into  separate  fire  risks; 

The  misuse  of  a  part  of  the  premises,  as  living  or 
sleeping  apartments,  as  kitchens  for  restaurants  or  for 
dangerous  trades,  or  stores; 

The  want  of  proper  fire  appliances  and  of  a  fire 
watch ; 

The  absence  of  fire-alarm  telegraphs,  or  delays  in 
sending  the  alarm ; 

Frequent  changes  of  watchmen,  fire  watch,  and 
stage  hands,  and  the  fact  that  even  men  occupying  re- 
sponsible positions  grow  careless  after  long  service. 

The  danger  of  fire  in  a  theatre  is  also,  to  some  ex- 
tent, dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  play, 
whether  the  plain  comedy  or  drama,  or  the  more  elab- 
orate opera,  ballet,  or  spectacular  play ;  upon  the  ar- 
rangement and  size  of  the  stage,  the  method  of  lighting 
used;  incandescent  electric  lights  being  without  doubt 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  2$ 

the  safest  to  use;  and  the  age  of  the  building,  the 
first  five  years  being,  as  found  by  experience,  among 
the  most  dangerous. 

Causes  of  Panics. 

Panics  may  occur  in  any  place  of  assembly  where 
large  crowds  of  people  are  congregated,  even  when 
there  is  no  outbreak  of  fire,  and  sometimes  very  trifling 
causes  may  create  terrible  panics.  It  is  in  many 
respects  much  more  difficult  to  prevent  a  panic  in  a 
theatre  than  a  fire;  and,  what  is  worse,  panics  may 
become  quite  as  dangerous  in  fireproof  buildings  as 
in  those  of  a  combustible  nature. 

The  immediate  causes  of  a  panic  may  be: — 

A  sudden  outbreak  of  fire; 

A  false  cry  of  "  fire,"  the  false  alarm  being  given 
either  by  some  excited  or  frightened,  foolish  person  in 
the  audience,  or  sometimes  intentionally,  as  for  in- 
stance by  pickpockets ; 

A  sudden  commotion  on  the  stage  or  in  the  audi- 
ence; 

The  sudden  appearance  of  smoke  on  the  stage,  from 
burnt  fireworks  or  otherwise; 

The  unannounced  darkening  of  the  house; 

A  sudden  extra  pressure  of  gas  at  the  footlights, 
causing  the  flames  to  flare  up  unduly; 

The  sudden  extinguishment  of  the  electric  light; 

A  fire-alarm  in  the  neighborhood,  or  even  only  the 
rattling  noise  of  passing  fire-engines; 

The  reflection  of  a  fire  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
theatre ; 

A  thunderstorm  or  stroke  of  lightning; 


26  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Persons  fainting  in  the  theatre; 

Horses  on  the  stage  becoming  frightened  and  shy- 
ing, or  falling  into  the  orchestra  pit ; 

And  miscellaneous  other  causes. 

Features  in  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  a 
theatre  which  may  indirectly  lead  to  a  panic  are: 

Too  few  exits; 

Various  exit  passages  crossing  each  other; 

Obstructed  aisles  or  corridors ; 

Too  narrow  stairs,  or  winding  stairs; 

Doors  opening  inward,  and  doors  opening  in  dark 
corridors; 

Safety  exits  kept  under  lock  and  key. 

The  best  way  to  prevent  panics  is  to  give  to  the 
theatre-goers  a  feeling  of  security  by  planning  a  very 
ample  number  of  wide  exits,  so  as  to  enable  the  quick 
and  quiet  emptying  of  the  house;  by  arranging  easy 
stairs;  by  providing  at  least  two  separate  stairs  for  each 
of  the  tiers;  by  arranging  a  larger  number  of  stairs  for 
the  visitors  in  the  gallery ;  by  installing  the  electric 
light  in  the  theatre,  particularly  on  the  stage;  and 
providing  also  auxiliary  lights  in  the  corridors,  stairs, 
and  exits.  Furthermore,  by  making  it  known  to  the 
theatre-goers  that  safety  appliances  are  provided  in 
abundance,  chief  among  these  being  large  stage  ven- 
tilators, a  fire-proof  curtain,  fire-walls  dividing  the 
stage  and  the  auditorium,  the  fire-proof  treatment  of 
scenery  and  of  woodwork  on  the  stage,  also  the  putting 
up  and  keeping  in  readiness,  for  instant  use  in  an 
emergency,  of  plenty  of  fire-extinguishing  and  life- 
saving  appliances,  including  an  automatic  sprinkler 
system  on  the  stage,  which  must  be  kept  in  good 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  2J 

working  order.  Finally,  by  informing  the  public  that 
a  strict  fire  watch  is  kept,  that  the  theatre  is  frequently 
inspected,  and  by  issuing  and  publishing  stringent 
regulations  referring  to  theatre  management. 

Dangers  to  Human  Life. 

To  further  understand  correctly  the  subject  of  thea- 
tre-fire catastrophes,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  various 
ways  in  which  human  life  is  endangered  in  a  theatre 
fire  or  panic. 

At  the  outset  I  will  state  that  it  is  an  error  to  sup- 
pose that  the  flames  are  the  chief  cause  of  death  in 
theatre-fire  catastrophes.  The  lessons  of  all  theatre 
calamities  point  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the  fire,  but 
the  smoke,  the  fire  gases,  and  the  intense  heat  incident 
to  the  fire,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  mad  rush  in  a 
panic,  which  kill  most  people.  Indeed,  the  majority 
of  people,  particularly  in  the  upper  galleries,  are  suffo- 
cated or  trampled  to  death  before  the  fire  reaches 
them.  In  many  of  the  theatre  conflagrations  cited 
above,  the  bodies  of  victims  were  found  perfectly  in- 
tact, and  either  in  a  sitting  position  or  else  fallen  upon 
the  floor  dead,  without  the  flames  ever  having  reached 
them. 

The  lives  of  people  in  theatres,  whether  spectators, 
actors,  musicians,  chorus-singers,  ballet-girls,  or  stage 
hands,  are  therefore  endangered — 

First,  by  smoke,  fire  gases,  heat,  asphyxia,  exhaus- 
tion; 

Second,  by  the  flames  of  the  fire; 

Third,  by  jams,  knocking  over,  falling  down  stairs, 
trampling,  crush; 


28  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Fourth,  by  direct  shock  or  fright; 

Fifth,  by  accidents,  such  as  the  falling  of  the  central 
chandelier. 

These  various  causes  may  result  in: 

(a)  Almost  instantaneous  death; 

(d)  Mortal  injuries; 

(c)  Injuries  resulting  in  permanent  bodily  disable- 
ment; 

(a)  Temporary  illness  and  recovery. 

The  long  list  of  theatres  destroyed  by  fires  breaking 
out  during  a  performance,  and  the  numerous  instances 
of  fires  breaking  out  during  these  hours,  but  which  are 
put  out  before  spreading,  is  proof  sufficient  that  the 
dangers  spoken  of  are  constantly  threatening  the 
theatre-going  public. 

To  sum  up :  Chief  among  the  causes  to  which  serious 
calamities  are  due  are :  open  lights  and  inflammable 
scenery;  defects  in  gas-lighting  and  gas-piping;  defec- 
tive gas-lamps;  faulty  construction  of  the  building; 
deficient  exits  and  absence  of  a  fire-proof  curtain,  or, 
where  same  is  provided,  the  fact  that  the  curtain  is  not 
used,  or  is  out  of  order;  absence  of  fire-extinguishing 
appliances,  or  lack  of  water  under  fire-pressure ;  auxil- 
iary lights  in  corridors,  exits,  and  stairs  not;  provided 
absence  of  smoke  ventilator  over  the  stage;  accumula- 
tion of  inflammable  scenery,  and  bad  management  in 
the  theatre. 

We  have  now  gained  a  sufficiently  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  causes  of  fires  and  panics  in  theatres  to 
enable  us  to  turn  to  the  second  part  of  our  subject, 
viz. : 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  2Q 

The  Prevention  of  Theatre  Fire  Catastrophes. 

The  principal  measures  for  the  prevention  of  theatre- 
fire  disasters  should  have  in  view,  first,  the  safety  of 
the  people  in  the  theatre,  whether  spectators,  actors, 
stage  hands,  or  firemen  on  duty,  and  next,  the  safety 
of  the  building.  The  safety  of  the  people  comes  first 
in  the  order  of  importance.  The  building  may  even 
burn  down,  but  the  public  must  under  all  circum- 
stances have  facilities  for  saving  themselves.  All 
efforts  must  be  directed  towards  making  the  play- 
goers, the  players,  and  the  theatre  employes  safe. 
All  manner  of  danger  arising  from  a  fire  or  from  a 
panic,  caused  by  a  real  or  false  fire-alarm,  should  be 
averted,  and  appliances  for  saving  life  should  be  kept 
within  reach.  Next,  the  building  should  be  made 
structurally  safe,  and  efficient  means  for  fire  extin- 
guishment should  be  provided,  thus  preventing  the 
immense  fire  loss  usually  caused  by  a  theatre  con- 
flagration. 

The  safety  measures  to  be  briefly  considered  here- 
after may  be  divided  into  four  principal  groups,  viz. : 

(a)  Measures  to  Prevent   Outbreaks  of  Fire  which 
include  rules  of  management,   regular  systems  of  in- 
spection; considerations  of  plan,   size,   location,   and 
construction  of  a  theatre,  height  of  building  and  num- 
ber of  galleries,  and  structural  details. 

(b)  Measures  to  Localize  Fires  and  to  prevent  their 
spreading,  if  in  spite  of  precautions  they  do  break  out. 
Under  this  heading  would  come  the  fire-walls,  the  fire- 
doors,  the  fire-curtain,  the  floor,  and  roof  construction, 


3C  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

and  the  division  of  the  theatre,  horizontally  and  ver- 
tically, into  many  separate  fire  risks. 

(c)  Measures  to  Insure  the  Safety  of  the  Spectators 
and  of  the  Stage  People,  to  prevent  injuries  resulting 
from  a  jam  or  crush  and  a  panic,  the  suffocation  by 
smoke  and  death  by  fire.     This  group  includes  ample 
means  for  safe,  easy,  and  quick  exit  from  the  burning 
theatre,  and  relates  to  such  subjects  as  seats,  aisles, 
passages,  doors,   stairs,  and  exits.      It  also  embraces 
the  questions  of  lighting  and  of  ventilation,  provision 
ot  stage  ventilators,  and  special  safety  appliances,  such 
as  thermostats,  automatic  fire-alarms,  etc.,  telegraphic 
communication  with  the  fire-department,  etc. 

(d)  Measures  to  Put  Out  Fires,  which  include  all  fire 
appliances;  the  stage-sprinkler  system,  etc.;  a  good, 
plentiful  water  service,  etc. 

The  whole  subject  will  be  discussed  more  systemati- 
cally and  at  greater  length  in  the  next  chapter,  on 
'*  The  Essential  Conditions  of  Safety  in  Theatres."  It 
will  suffice  to  enumerate  here  only  the  principal  meas- 
ures of  safety. 

I.  To  begin  with,  the  theatre  building  should  be 
isolated  as  far  as  practicable.  Then  there  should  be 
in  /every  theatre  plenty  of  wide,  well-arranged  and 
well-distributed  exits,  leading  the  audience  as  quickly 
as  possible  to  outdoors,  and  thereby  decentralizing  the 
crowd.  There  should  be  separate  and  numerous  fire- 
proof stairs — at  least  two  for  each  tier.  For  the  stage 
and  its  accessory  departments  provision  should  be  made 
for  at  least  two  independent  exits.  Fireproof  stairs 
for  the  workmen  should  lead  from  the  rigging  loft 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  31 

down  to  the  stage  floor.  The  fire  at  the  Opera- 
Comique  taught  a  good  lesson  in  pointing  out  the 
necessity  of  having  proper  means  of  escape  for  the 
performers  and  workmen  on  the  stage,  which  some- 
times number  as  many  as  300  to  400  people.  Where 
the  theatre  is  not  standing  free  on  all  sides  there 
should  be  wide  courts  on  both  sides  and  additional 
safety  exits  from  the  auditorium  to  the  same,  includ- 
ing suitable  fire-escapes  from  the  balcony  and  upper 
galleries.  Much  the  best  plan,  where  the  dimensions 
of  the  lot  permit,  is  to  have  wide  fire-proof  terraces, 
foyers,  or  colonnades  adjoining  the  corridors  in  each 
tier,  which  form  places  of  safety  for  the  audience  in 
case  they  have  to  leave  the  theatre  suddenly.  All 
halls,  corridors,  passages,  stairs,  exit  doors,  courts,  and 
exits  should  be  free  from  all  obstruction.  All  exit 
doors  should  open  outward.  Exits  should  not  be 
reduced  at  any  point,  but  if  possible  should  widen 
outward.  There  should  be  plenty  of  wide  aisles, 
without  steps,  and  no  chairs  or  camp-stools  should  be 
permitted  in  the  aisles. 

It  is  particularly  important  that  there  should  be  a 
sufficient  number  of  stairs  and  plenty  of  exits  for  the 
occupants  of  the  galleries,  who,  as  the  fire  catastrophes 
described  amply  prove,  are  more  endangered  than 
the  other  spectators.  Those  who  pay  twenty-five 
cents  admission  fee  have  surely  the  same  rights  to 
safety  as  the  occupants  of  three  or  five  dollar  seats; 
and  in  a  place  of  amusement,  to  quote  the  words  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Duryea,  spoken  at  the  funeral  services 
for  the  victims  of  the  Brooklyn  Theatre  fire,  "  the 
poor  should  be  made  as  safe  as  the  rich.'* 


32  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Stairs  from  different  tiers  should  not  communicate 
together,  nor  should  streams  of  people  cross  each 
other  on  their  way  out.  All  stairs  should  be  provided 
with  handrails  on  both  sides ;  winding  stairs  and  single 
steps  should  be  avoided. 

The  provision  of  proper  exits  (including,  in  the. 
broader  sense  of  the  word,  aisles,  corridors,  stairs, 
doors)  is  by  far  the  most  important  safety  measure 
both  for  fire  and  for  panic.  In  fact,  if  properly  carried 
out,  it  will  save  the  lives  of  people  even  where  all  the 
other  precautions  are  neglected.  The  aim  should  be 
to  arrange  the  exits  so  that  a  theatre  can  be  emptied 
without  the  slightest  difficulty  in  from  two  to  three 
minutes.  Much  will  depend  upon  the  available  site 
and  upon  the  plan  of  the  building. 

If  only  plenty  of  exits  are  provided,  so  that,  under 
all  circumstances,  the  whole  audience,  even  when 
frightened  and  suddenly  thrown  into  a  state  of  high 
mental  excitement,  can  leave  the  building  inside  of  two 
or  three  minutes,  the  fire-resisting  qualities  of  the 
building  are  of  less  consequence,  as  regards  the  safety 
of  the  persons  in  the  theatre.  In  fact,  a  theatre  in- 
ferior in  point  of  construction,  but  having  exits  as 
above  described,  would  be  safer  than  one  built 
thoroughly  fire-proof,  but  otherwise  not  well  arranged 
and  not  provided  with  sufficient  stairs  and  exits,  and 
where,  therefore,  in  case  of  a  false  or  real  alarm  of 
fire,  or  a  panic  from  any  cause,  the  people  would 
necessarily  be  in  grave  peril. 

2.  Recognizing  from  the  lessons  taught  by  past 
theatre-fire  catastrophes  that  the  stage  is  the  chief 
point  of  danger,  it  should  be  the  aim  to  completely 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  33 

isolate  this  part  of  a  theatre.  Fire-walls  should  sep- 
arate the  stage  from  the  auditorium  on  the  one  hand, 
and  from  the  dressing-rooms  and  theatre  offices  on  the 
other.  The  fire-wall,  dividing  the  auditorium  from 
the  stage,  in  which  is  located  the  large  proscenium 
opening,  should  have  as  few  other  openings  as  possible, 
and  none  at  all  above  the  level  of  the  stage.  All 
openings  should  be  kept  closed  by  fire  doors.  The 
proscenium  opening  should  be  fitted  with  a  fire-resist- 
ing curtain,  closing  as  nearly  as  possible  hermetically. 
The  chief  object  of  the  curtain  is  to  localize  a  stage  fire 
and  to  cut  off  the  fire,  the  smoke,  and  the  view  of  the 
fire  during  the  retreat  of  the  audience.  It  thus  serves 
to  restore  confidence,  and  will  often  help  to  avoid  the 
usual  panic  and  jam.  The  fire-curtain  should  be  able 
to  withstand  the  increased  air-pressure  due  to  the 
heat  sufficiently  long  to  enable  the  audience  to  make 
its  escape.  Whether  the  curtain  be  of  corrugated  iron 
or  of  asbestos,  it  is  important  that  the  apparatus  for 
lowering  the  same  be  located  on  the  stage,  and  not  in 
the  rigging  loft,  which  place  very  soon  becomes  in- 
accessible when  a  stage  fire  breaks  out. 

3.  Smoke  and  fire  gases  being  the  chief  causes  of 
death  of  the  victims  of  theatre-fire  calamities,  it  is 
essential  that  large  smoke-ventilators  or  ventilating 
skylights  be  fitted  up  over  the  stage,  in  order  to  re- 
move the  smoke  at  the  highest  point  of  the  stage  roof. 
Incidentally,  the  stage  ventilators  tend  to  create  a 
current  of  air  from  the  auditorium  towards  the  stage, 
and  thereby  prevent  smoke,  flames,  and  suffocating 
gases  from  escaping  into  the  auditorium.  In  this 
connection  the  abolishment  of  the  usual  central  chan- 


34  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

delier  and  ceiling  vent  in  the  auditorium  is  important. 
All  ventilating  registers  for  the  auditorium  should  have 
dampers  which  are  controlled  and  can  be  closed  from 
the  stage.  This  measure  will  tend  to  prevent  the 
suffocation  of  the  people  in  the  upper  gallery  in  case 
of  a  fire. 

4.  The  study  of  the  causes  of  theatre  fires  having 
shown  that  open  gas-lights  in  the  vicinity  of  stage 
scenery  and  settings  are  the  most  prolific  cause  of  fire, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  stage  and  the  scenery  can  be  made 
safer  by  fitting  the  same  up  with  incandescent  electric 
light.  All  open  lights,  and  gas-lights  in  particular,  as 
well  as  all  sources  of  heat,  should  be  eliminated  from 
the  stage.  Incandescent  electric  light  constitutes  a 
brilliant,  uniform,  and  easily  regulated  light.  It  has 
not  only  the  advantage  of  being  much  safer  as  regards 
danger  from  fire,  but  it  is  superior  also  because  it  does 
not  vitiate  the  air,  because  it  creates  much  less  heat 
than  gas,  and  because  it  does  away  with  the  dangerous 
lighting  up  of  gas  flames,  which  has  been  the  cause  of 
many  a  fire.  In  short,  the  electric  light  in  theatres 
has  all  the  advantages  of  gas  without  any  of  its  incon- 
veniences and  dangers.  But  if  gas-lighting  must  be 
used,  the  gas-piping  should  be  most  carefully  done, 
all  open  flames  should  be  well  protected,  the  gas- 
meters  set  in  a  safe  place,  and  the  best  available  elec- 
tric spark  or  flash-lighting  system  should  be  installed 
for  lighting  up.  In  addition  to  the  regular  system  of 
lighting,  whether  by  gas  or  by  electricity,  there  should 
be  provided  in  the  corridors,  stairs,  and  exits  auxiliary 
lights,  either  candle-lanterns,  or  oil-lamps  burning 
vegetable-oil,  to  make  the  retreat  of  the  people  safer 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  35 

in  case  the  gas  is  turned  off  or  in  case  the  electric 
light  fails.  The  central  gas  chandelier  in  the  audi- 
torium, moreover,  should  be  abolished. 

5.  To  increase  the  safety  of  the  stage  still  further, 
it  is  imperative  to  insist  upon  the  fireproof  treatment 
of  all  stage  woodwork  by  the  application  of  fire-proof 
paint,  and  likewise  upon  the  chemical  impregnation  of 
all  gauze  scenery,  draperies,  furniture,  and  costumes  to 
render  same  uninflammable.  A  further  step  forward,  in 
the  right  direction,  consists  in  the  employment  of  light 
sheet-iron  frames  or  of  wire-cloth  netting,  or  in  the  use 
of  asbestos  for  scenic  decorations.  Improvements  in 
the  stage  machinery,  such  as  the  use  of  hydraulic 
power  for  raising  and  lowering  traps  and  scenery  in 
place  of  wooden  hoisting  drums  and  hand  labor,  the 
substitution  of  steel-wire  ropes  in  place  of  hemp  cord, 
the  entire  abolishment  of  borders  and  wings,  are  much 
to  be  desired,  all  of  which  tend  to  make  the  stage 
safer.  These  are  not  merely  theoretical  suggestions: 
they  have,  on  the  contrary,  proven  eminently  practical 
in  actual  use.  The  improvements  recommended  are 
largely  due  to  suggestions  from  the  Asphaleia  Society 
of  Vienna,  Austria,  whose  system  of  stage  construction 
and  stage  machinery  has  been  successfully  used  at  the 
theatres  of  Buda-Pesth  in  Austria-Hungary,  at  the 
People's  Theatre  in  Vienna,  at  the  Halle  Stadt  Thea- 
tre in  Germany,  in  the  Victoria  Theatre  in  Sidney, 
Australia,  and  in  our  country  in  the  new  Auditorium 
Theatre  in  Chicago. 

The  accumulation  of  much  scenery  or  scenic  decora- 
tions on  or  near  the  stage  should  be  avoided,  and  not 
more  scenery  should  be  hung  than  is  needed  for  two 


36  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

performances.  Neither  the  auditorium  loft  nor  the 
cellar  under  the  auditorium  should  be  used  for  the 
storage  of  scenery.  Want  of  order  on  the  stage  is 
sometimes  due  to  lack  of  store-room,  or  to  an  insuffi- 
cient number  of  stage  hands. 

6.  In  the  construction  of  the  theatre  building,  fire- 
resisting  materials  should    be  preferred,   and   unpro- 
tected   ironwork,   granite,    and    limestone  should  be 
avoided.     The  building  should  be  divided  into  a  large 
number  of  separate  fire  risks,   both  horizontally  and 
vertically.     The  stage  should  be  completely  isolated 
by  fire-walls  carried  above  the  roof,  all  dressing-rooms 
should  be  made  fire-proof,  and  the  whole  auditorium 
and  each  of  its  tiers,  corridors,  and  stairs  should  be 
constructed  in  a  fire-resisting  manner. 

7.  All  scene-docks,  workshops,  carpenter  and  paint 
shops  should  be  banished  from  the  theatre  building, 
and  placed  in  a  separate  fire-proof  annex.    The  heating 
apparatus,  the  dynamos  of  the  electric-light  plant,  the 
fire-pump,   and  the  gas-meters  should  be  located  in 
fire-proof  vaults,   preferably  under  the  sidewalk,  but 
not  under  Jthe  stage  nor  under  the  auditorium.     No 
living  or  sleeping  apartments,  and  no  stores  should 
be  located  in  the  theatre  building,  and  no  dangerous 
trades  should  be  carried  on  in  the  same. 

8.  In  order  to  put  out  a  fire  in  a  theatre  before  it 
can  gain  headway,  there  should  be  provided  an  abund- 
ant supply  of  water  under  fire-pressure,  and  plenty  of 
efficient  fire-extinguishing  appliances,  such  as  one  or 
more  fire-pumps,  fire  stand-pipes,  fire-valves,  hydrants, 
monitor  nozzles,  and  fire-hose;  a  large  number  of  fire 
pails,  casks  of  water,  chemical  fire-extinguishers,  fire- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  3? 

axes,  fire-hooks  on  poles,  wet  sheets,  wet  sponges  on 
long  poles,  etc.  The  whole  stage  should,  moreover, 
be  protected  by  an  automatic  sprinkler  system,  sup- 
plied from  a  large  open  tank  on  the  highest  roof,  and 
having  also  an  outside  fire-department  connection,  to 
which  the  fire-engines  may  be  coupled.  All  the 
appliances  mentioned  are  useful  chiefly  during  the  first 
moments  of  a  fire,  and  wherever  provided  and  kept  in 
good  order  and  in  readiness  for  instant  use,  they  have 
served  to  put  out  many  a  stage  fire  which,  without 
them,  might  have  resulted  in  a  serious  calamity.  It 
is  true,  however,  that,  as  soon  as  the  flames  have 
spread,  in  the  majority  of  theatres  as  constructed  until 
recently,  the  fire  appliances  would  soon  become 
powerless  to  subdue  a  fire.  In  regard  to  details,  I 
refer  to  Chapter  III,  which  deals  in  particular  with 
11  The  Water  Service  and  Fire  Protection  of  Thea- 
tres." 

9.  Much  care  should  be  bestowed  upon  the  heating 
apparatus  for  a  theatre,  for  in  not  a  few  instances  has 
it   been   the  cause   of  a  fire.     A  number  of  fires  as 
sources  of  heat  being  out  of  the  question,  on  account 
of  difficulties  in  attending  to  them,  and  also  because 
they  increase  the  fire  danger,  the  choice  lies  between 
a   warm-air  furnace,    a  steam  or  a  hot-water  boiler. 
Furnaces  can  only  be  used  for  theatres  of  small  size, 
and  in  the  majority  of  cases  heating  is  done  by  steam. 
The  usual  precautions  should  be  observed,   and  the 
steam-boiler  placed  in   a  fire-proof  vault,  preferably 
outside  of  the  theatre  proper.      It  may  with  advantage 
be  combined  with  the  electric-light  plant. 

10.  Efficient    lighting-rod  protection    adds  to   the 


38  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

safety  of  a  theatre  building,  and  in  European  theatres 
its  installation  is  generally  included  in  the  equipment 
of  the  building. 

n.  It  is  quite  important  to  have  on  hand,  in  every 
theatre,  for  cases  of  emergency,  a  few  life-saving 
appliances,  such  as  rope  escapes,  a  jumping-net,  and 
a  cloth  chute  to  aid  in  saving  persons  in  case  their 
retreat  from  the  upper  floors  should  be  too  suddenly 
cut  off  by  fire  or  smoke. 

12.  Finally,  it  will  be  a  great  help  in  preventing 
theatre  fires  if  a  fire  watch  is  kept  in  the  building  day 
and  night,  reinforced  during  the  hours  of  the  perform- 
ance by  detachments  from  the  city  fire-department. 
Nothing  will  increase  more  the  security  of  a  theatre 
than  frequent  inspections,  about  which  I  shall  say 
something  hereafter.  There  should  be  a  telegraph 
connection  with  the  nearest  fire-department  station, 
and  automatic  fire-alarms  at  many  points  in  the  build- 
ing, which  should  be  frequently  tested  to  make  sure 
that  they  are  in  good  working  order.  There  should 
also  be  speaking-tubes,  electric  bells,  and  telegraph 
alarms,  to  bring  all  parts  of  the  building  into  com- 
munication with  each  other.  And,  lastly,  the  theatre 
employes  should  undergo  regular  fire-drills,  so  that  in 
case  of  an  emergency  each  employe  will  know  what 
duty  he  has  to  perform. 

Many  of  the  safety  appliances  spoken  of  can  be 
arranged  so  as  to  work  automatically.  Such  automatic 
appliances  are  good  in  their  way,  and  some  of  them 
have  proven  in  actual  experience  to  be  quite  efficient. 
They  should  not,  however,  be  solely  relied  upon,  and 
in  general  it  will  be  better  not  to  trust  to  automatic 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  30 

appliances  altogether.  The  automatic  fire-alarm  sys- 
tem and  the  automatic  sprinkler  system  may  be 
approved ;  but  the  automatic  sliding  skylights  or  the 
smoke  ventilators  over  the  stage  roof  and  the  automatic 
fire-curtain  may  fail  to  work  properly  just  when  needed. 
I  am  quite  aware  of  the  fact  that  others  argue  in  favor 
of  automatic  appliances,  claiming  that  one  cannot  rely 
in  moments  of  danger  upon  the  cool-headedness  of 
men,  and  that  in  a  panic  every  one  thinks  of  his  own 
safety  first,  and  that  theatre  employes  will  forget  their 
duties. 

But,  in  my  judgment,  it  is  infinitely  better  to  put 
all  such  appliances  in  charge  of  a  special,  trusted, 
"  safety  officer,"  who  may  be  an  experienced  fireman, 
whose  duty  in  case  of  an  outbreak  of  fire  should  be 
to  lower  the  fire-curtain,  to  open  the  stage  ventilators, 
to  close  the  auditorium  ventilating  registers,  to  send 
the  alarm  to  the  theatre  engineer  who  runs  the  fire- 
pump  and  to  the  nearest  fire-engine  station,  to  notify 
the  audience  promptly  that  they  must  disperse  quietly, 
to  see  that  the  gas  is  not  shut  off  and  that  the  auxil- 
iary lights  are  kept  burning,  to  see  that  all  doors  lead- 
ing to  the  stage  are  kept  closed  to  prevent  a  draft,  and 
who  should  order  the  water  turned  on  at  the  fire- 
hydrants,  the  monitor  nozzles,  and  the  perforated  pipe 
system,  where  such  is  installed  in  place  of  automatic 
sprinklers. 

I  have  not,  so  far,  made  any  distinction  between 
0/<^and  new  theatre  buildings,  for  the  requirements  for 
safety  really  apply  to  both  alike,  but,  of  course,  are 
much  more  difficult  to  enforce  in  the  case  of  the  older 
structures.  These  are,  everywhere,  as  a  rule,  lament- 


40  THEATR&  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

ably  deficient  and  unsafe,  and  much  good  would  re-suit 
if  they  were  frequently  inspected  by  the  fire-depart- 
ment, and  if  alterations  were  ordered  made  to  increase 
the  safety  of  audiences.  The  public  generally  is  not 
able  to,  and  does  not,  discriminate  between  safe  and 
dangerous  theatres.  If  the  older  theatres  cannot  be 
made  safe,  particularly  as  regards  the  exits,  they 
should  be  closed  up  by  the  authorities.  All  theatre 
regulations  should  be  compulsory,  and  the  building, 
fire,  and  police  departments  should  have  power  to 
stringently  enforce  them.  The  law  should  clearly 
define  the  responsibility  of  architects  and  builders 
and  of  the  theatre  managers  in  the  matter  of  theatre 
safety.  It  is  but  reasonable  to  require  of  theatre 
managers  that  every  known  approved  measure,  tend- 
ing to  increase  the  safety  of  the  public,  be  provided 
for.  It  is,  likewise,  justifiable  to  require  builders  to 
construct  places  for  public  amusement  in  such  a  secure 
manner  that  all  dangers  to  life  and  limb  are  averted. 

Theatre  Inspections. 

In  the  case  of  new  theatre  buildings,  it  does  not 
suffice  to  have  them  well  planned  and  well  constructed. 
There  should  be,  after  the  opening,  regular  inspec- 
tions to  make  sure  that  the  laws  are  not  violated  after 
the  new  building  has  passed  the  final  examination  of 
the  authorities.  If  subsequent  alterations  are  contem- 
plated, they  should  likewise  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  building  laws.  The  theatre  license  should  be  sub- 
ject to  revocation  at  any  time  for  violation  of  the  law. 
In  the  efficient  periodical  inspection  and  control  of 
theatres  by  the  authorities  lies  the  greatest  safeguard 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  41 

against  fire  catastrophes.  Such  inspections  should  be 
made  much  oftener  than  once  a  year.  In  Vienna  they 
occur  four  times  a  year;  in  Paris  inspections  are  made 
every  month  by  a  committee  of  safety,  consisting  of 
a  police  commissioner,  an  official  from  the  city  fire- 
department,  and  an  architect.  In  London  monthly 
inspections  are  required.  These  inspections  should 
be  made  not  only  in  day-time,  but  likewise  in  the 
evenings  during  a  performance,  and  all  details  should 
be  included  in  the  examination.  Special  expert  sur- 
veys and  tests  of  the  gas-pipes,  electric  conduits,  fire- 
alarms,  and  the  fire  appliances  should  be  made  from 
time  to  time,  and  official  reports  made  as  to  the 
results  found.  It  is  best  to  make  inspections  without 
any  previous  announcement.  The  results  should  be 
published,  without  fear  or  favor,  in  the  daily  news- 
papers. Nowhere  are  theatres  inspections  carried  out 
with  greater  strictness  than  in  Berlin.  All  theatres 
are  regularly  inspected  and  surveyed,  at  odd  times,  by 
a  committee  from  the  fire  brigade  and  the  building 
department.  Every  two  weeks  the  district  fire-marshal 
examines  the  theatres,  during  the  day  and  also  at 
night.  Finally,  officers  of  the  fire  brigade  make  nightly 
inspections  during  the  performances,  and  a  watch  of 
trained  firemen  is  placed  in  every  theatre  during  per- 
formances. All  these  precautions  have  a  tendency  to 
awaken  public  confidence,  and  in  case  of  a  fire  a  panic 
is  not  so  apt  to  occur.  Indeed,  there  are  several  in- 
stances of  well-built  and  well-managed  theatres  on 
record  where  during  a  performance  fire  broke  out 
which  ultimately  destroyed  the  building,  but  where 


42  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

the  whole  audience  left  the  theatre  quietly  and  in  good 
order,  and  where  no  accident  of  any  kind  occurred. 

For  the  safety  of  theatres  it  is  essential  that  they 
be  continuously  watched.  In  the  words  of  Mr. 
Gamier,  the  architect  of  the  Paris  Opera-House,  "  the 
strict,  minute,  and  incessant  watch  and  inspection  of 
all  parts  of  a  theatre  constitute  the  chief  defence  of 
theatres  against  fires." 

A  century  ago  it  was  decided  in  France  that  firemen 
were  the  proper  persons  to  do  this.  At  first  they  were 
present  on  the  stage  merely  during  the  performances; 
subsequently  it  was  decreed  that  firemen  should  be  on 
watch  in  a  theatre  during  the  day  and  the  night.  If 
the  employment  of  fire-watches  is  left  to  the  discretion 
of  theatre  managers,  persons  are  sometimes  engaged 
for  this  duty  who  are  incompetent,  or,  if  competent, 
they  are  required  to  perform  other  duties  besides,  and 
being  thus  overworked,  fail  to  efficiently  accomplish 
the  object  sought  for.  Fire-watchmen  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  building,  the  whole  theatre  staff 
should  be  under  their  control, and  they  should  be  vested 
with  authority  to  interfere  in  case  of  violation  of  the 
theatre  regulations.  In  the  large  Paris  Opera-House 
there  are  always  twenty-five  firemen  on  duty,  and  dur- 
ing performances  their  number  is  doubled.  In  the 
Vienna  Opera-House  there  are  ten  men  on  duty.  In 
the  Berlin  theatres  strong  fire-watches,  composed  of 
the  most  experienced  men  of  the  fire-brigade,  are 
stationed  in  the  building  during  performances,  and  a 
special  police  patrol  is  stationed  in  front  of  the  house 
to  keep  the  crowd  in  order,  and  to  see  that  the  exits 
are  kept  open  and  unobstructed.  During  all  perform- 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  43 

ances  a  detachment  of  firemen  should  be  stationed  on 
the  stage  and  should  watch  not  only  the  lighting 
arrangements,  the  fireworks,  the  firing  of  fire-arms, 
but  also  have  charge  of  the  fire-extinguishing  and  life- 
saving  appliances,  and  see  that  they  are  kept  in  order 
and  ready  for  use.  At  the  close  of  each  performance 
an  inspection  of  the  whole  theatre  should  be  made  by 
the  fire-watch,  attention  being  paid  in  particular  to  the 
heating  and  lighting  apparatus,  to  the  decorations  and 
scenery,  and  to  the  dressing-rooms. 

One  cannot  learn  the  dangers  incident  to  large  fires, 
nor  the  effect  of  good  fire-extinguishing  appliances, 
better  than  by  being  daily  engaged  in  fighting  flames, 
nor  can  anybody  have  a  better  appreciation  of  the 
effect  of  suffocating  smoke  than  a  fireman.  Firemen, 
therefore,  are  as  well  qualified  as  builders,  architects, 
and  engineers  to  judge  of  the  security  of  a  theatre 
building  and  of  the  efficiency  of  the  safety  measures 
adopted.  The  training  of  firemen  is  such  as  to  make 
them  proper  persons  to  examine  and  pass  upon  the 
plans  for  new  theatres,  and  to  inspect  both — the 
theatres  in  course  of  erection  as  well  as  those  already 
built.  With  their  assistance  the  rules  and  regulations 
for  theatre  management  should  be  framed  ;  they  should 
be  intrusted  with  the  inspection  of  theatres,  to  see 
that  the  rules  are  enforced ;  finally,  they  should  be  in 
charge  of  the  fire  appliances  in  theatres,  and  should 
direct  the  fire-drill  of  the  employes. 


44  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Theatre  Management. 

Strict  rules  and  regulations  pertaining  to  the  man- 
agement of  theatres  should  be  drawn  up  by  the 
authorities,  and  enforced  by  the  fire,  building,  and 
police  departments,  which,  as  regards  theatres,  are 
correlated.  Such  rules  of  management  relate  to  the 
following,  viz. : 

The  proper  storage  of  decorations,  scenery,  furni- 
ture, and  property; 

The  maintenance  of  general  order,  cleanliness,  and 
discipline; 

The  removal  of  rubbish,  litter,  and  ashes; 

Keeping  the  scenic  decorations  free  from  dust; 

Keeping  all  corridors  and  exits  unobstructed,  and 
likewise  holding  all  fire  stand-pipes,  hydrants,  fire- 
pails,  and  casks  of  water  accessible  and  ready  for  use. 

The  rules  also  relate  to  the  use  of  open  fires  and 
lights,  the  employment  of  special  lights  and  fire  effects, 
the  use  of  fireworks,  and  of  fire-arms,  the  representation 
of  actual  fire  scenes,  the  use  of  matches,  the  prohibi- 
tion of  smoking  or  lighting  cigars  in  the  auditorium,  and 
foyers,  or  in  the  dressing-rooms,  and  should  only  per- 
mit the  same  where  needed  in  the  course  of  the  play. 
They  should  also  include  the  daily  use  of  the  fire- 
curtain,  and  the  opening  of  all  exits;  the  maintenance 
of  auxiliary  lights,  either  oil-lamps  or  candle-lanterns, 
in  corridors,  courts,  and  exits:  the  keeping  up  of  steam 
under  proper  pressure  at  the  fire-pump  during  per- 
formances, the  employment  of  a  special  fire-watch  and 
a  theatre  night-watch,  etc.  They  should  require  the 
fire-proof  treatment  of  all  gauze  costumes,  and  prohibit 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  45 

the  use  of  open  lights  in  the  wardrobes  and  dressing- 
rooms.  A  penalty  should  be  enforced  for  the  use  of 
fire-pails  for  other  than  fire  purposes.  Moreover,  the 
number  of  persons  in  each  tier  should  be  limited  by 
law,  and  standing-room  in  the  aisles  should  be  pro- 
hibited, and  a  heavy  fine  enforced  for  any  violation  of 
these  rules.  The  practice  of  a  sudden,  unannounced 
darkening  of  the  auditorium  should  not  be  permitted, 
nor  any  dangerous  fire  exhibitions  on  the  stage,  except 
where  the  stage  is  absolutely  fire-proof.  Special  pre- 
cautions should  be  enforced  where  the  stage  is  deco- 
rated with  natural  branches  of  fir-trees,  which  when 
exposed  to  heat  dry  out  quickly  and  become  extremely 
fire-hazardous,  and  also  where  the  auditorium  and  the 
stage  are  temporarily  thrown  together,  as  during 
masquerade  balls.  The  rules  should  prohibit  work- 
shops of  any  kind  in  the  theatre  proper.  They  should 
finally  require  clearly  drawn  plans  of  the  theatre, 
showing  the  exits,  to  be  hung  up  at  conspicuous 
points,  and  also  to  be  legibly  printed  on  all  theatre 
programmes;  and,  last,  they  should  compel  the  plain 
marking  of  all  exits  in  large  letters  painted  over  the 
doors. 

Conclusion. 

Only  a  few  more  words  in  conclusion.  Experience 
teaches  that  after  each  theatre  fire,  accompanied  by 
loss  of  life,  the  greatest  excitement  prevails  for  a 
time,  and  the  daily  papers,  the  magazines,  and  the 
technical  press  are  full  of  articles,  discussing  defects 
of  theatres  and  suggesting  remedies ;  the  public  refrains 
temporarily  from  going  to  these  places  of  amusement; 


46  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

the  authorities  show  the  greatest  zeal  in  making  official 
inspections;  and  theatre  managers  actively  undertake 
interior  improvements.  Very  soon,  however,  the 
excitement  subsides,  after  a  little  while  the  lessons  of 
the  calamity  are  forgotten,  the  theatre  management 
resumes  old  habits,  the  most  common  precautions  are 
neglected,  the  public  becomes  again  indifferent  to  the 
dangers  constantly  threatening  them  in  unsafe  theatres, 
and  everything  goes  along  as  before.  This,  I  need 
hardly  say,  is  all  wrong. 

There  is  an  old  adage  which  says,  "  In  time  of 
peace  prepare  for  war."  Applied  to  our  subject,  it 
means  that  the  movement  for  theatre  reforms  should 
constantly  be  kept  stirred  up,  that,  without  unneces- 
sarily alarming  the  public,  interest  in  the  subject  of 
theatre-fire  prevention  should  be  ever  maintained,  and 
that,  quietly  but  persistently,  radical  measures  should 
be  adopted  to  stamp  out  the  grave  dangers  to  which 
human  life  is  exposed  in  the  theatres  of  many  of  our 
cities. 

I  should  feel  amply  rewarded  for  the  labor  involved 
in  gathering  the  facts  contained  herein  if  it  should 
result  in  the  improvement  of  some  theatres,  and  lead 
to  the  enactment  of  stricter  laws  regarding  theatre 
construction  and  theatre  management  in  many  of  our 
smaller  cities  and  towns,  where,  even  at  this  day,  no 
official  control  over  theatres  is  exerted  by  building  or 
fire  departments.  Strict  theatre  laws  and  frequent 
inspections  by  fire-departments  constitute  the  most 
important  factors  in  lessening,  for  the  future,  the 
number  of  theatre-fire  catastrophes. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  47 


II. 


THE   ESSENTIAL  CONDITIONS  OF  SAFETY  IN 
THEATRES.* 

THE  subject  of  the  causes  and  prevention  of  fires  in 
theatres  has,  for  many  years,  occupied  my  special 
attention.  Having  been  engaged  in  the  course  of  my 
professional  practice  with  the  installation  of  water, 
gas,  and  fire  service  plants  in  some  of  the  modern 
theatres,  I  have  had  special  opportunities  of  becoming 
familiar  with  the  essential  requirements  of  safety  in 
these  buildings. 

In  the  following  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give 
a  brief  rfeumt  of  these  requirements,  as  derived  from 
personal  experience,  observation,  and  study.  As 
regards  my  views  on  the  fire  protection  of  theatres, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  detailed  description  given 
in  Chapter  III,  which  deals  with  "The  Water-Service 
and  the  Fire-Protection  of  Theatres."  The  gas-light- 
ing system,  the  plumbing,  ventilation,  and  sanitation 
of  theatres  are  likewise  special  subjects  worthy  of  care- 
ful consideration. 

The  safety  of  a  theatre  may  be  said  to  depend  on 
six  principal  factors,  viz.:  (i)  The  site;  (2)  the  plan; 
(3)  the  construction;  (4)  the  interior  equipment  and 

*  This  essay  on  Modern  Theatre  Planning,  Construction,  Equip- 
ment, and  Management  was  originally  prepared  for  the  American 
Architect,  and  appeared  in  the  June  and  July,  1894,  issues. 


48  THEATRE  FIRES  AND    PANICS: 

arrangement ;  (5)  the  management,  and  (6)  the  period- 
ical inspection. 

The  site  of  a  theatre  building  is  of  importance  as 
regards  its  relation  to  adjoining  buildings,  and  as 
regards  the  approaches,  entrances,  and  exits.  The 
development  of  the  plan  depends  largely  upon  the 
available  site. 

The  planning  ot  a  theatre  consists  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  floor-plans  of  the  building,  and  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  same,  with  their  principal  horizon- 
tal and  vertical  subdivisions  and  means  of  communica- 
tion, such  as  stairways,  entrances,  and  exits. 

The  construction  of  the  building  is  to  be  considered 
in  reference  to  the  employment  of  fire-resisting 
materials  in  general,  and  also,  in  detail,  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  the  stage  and  its  accessories;  the 
auditorium  and  tiers;  the  dressing-rooms ;  workshops; 
the  roofs;  the  aisles,  staircases,  passages,  corridors, 
doors,  entrances,  and  exits. 

The  interior  arrangement  and  equipment  include 
many  important  details,  such  as  the  fire-proof  curtain, 
the  stage  scenery  and  stage  machinery,  the  fly- 
galleries,  rigging-loft  and  painter's-bridge;  the  stage- 
roof  ventilator;  the  heating,  ventilation,  lighting, 
plumbing,  drainage  and  sanitation,  water-supply  and 
fire-extinguishing  appliances;  lightning-rods;  fire- 
escapes,  doors,  auditorium-chairs,  and  the  life-saving 
appliances. 

The  management  includes  numerous  matters  of  detail 
and  rules  and  regulations  pertaining  to  the  safety  of 
the  building  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  audience, 
the  actors,  and  the  stage  employe's  on  the  other. 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  49 

The  periodical  inspection,  finally,  forms  a  necessary 
and  important  safeguard,  and  includes  frequent  sur- 
veys of  the  building  and  of  its  gas,  water,  steam,  fire, 
and  electric  appliances,  all  of  which  should  be  tested 
at  regular  intervals,  to  insure  their  being  in  proper 
working  order  when  needed. 

Causes  of  Theatre  Fires. 

A  study  of  the  chief  causes  of  theatre  fires  is  im- 
portant and  necessary  to  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  subject.  The  knowledge  of  the  principal  causes  to 
which  theatre  catastrophes  have  been  attributed  will 
do  much  to  enable  us  to  avoid,  or  to  remove,  defects 
which,  if  present  or  allowed  to  remain,  may  at  any 
time  precipitate  a  calamity.  I  must,  however,  con- 
tent myself  with  giving  the  following  brief  summary: 

(a)  Bad  location ;  exposure  to  fire  from  neighboring 

buildings. 

Bad  planning;  faulty  interior  arrangement. 
Inferior   or  improper    construction;    structural 

defects,  defective  flues,  timber  near  flues. 

(b)  Wrong  use  of  the  premises;  dangerous  trades 

carried  on  in  stores  or  shops  in  the  theatre 
building. 

Defective  lighting  apparatus;  oil-lamps,  gas  and 
electric  light;  matches,  torches,  spirit-lamps; 
leaky  gas-pipes,  gas  explosions. 

Defective  heating  apparatus. 

Accumulation  of  highly  inflammable  stage  ma- 
terial. 

Use  of    fireworks,    colored    lights,    explosives, 


$O  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

and  of  open  fires  on  the  stage;  use  of  fire- 
arms; carelessness  in  the  fireworks  laboratory; 
dancing  on  the  stage  with  lighted  torches  or 
flambeaux. 

Accidents  to  scene-hoisting  machinery,  also 
hasty  shifting  of  light  and  highly  inflammable 
scenery  in  too  close  vicinity  of  powerful  un- 
protected gas-flames. 

Carelessness  in  lighting  border-lights. 

Non-removal  of  rubbish  and  oily  waste,  and 
ignition  of  same,  either  by  spontaneous  com- 
bustion or  by  the  careless  throwing  away  of 
lighted  matches. 

Smoking  in  the  theatre,  in  the  actor's  dressing- 
rooms,  and  on  the  stage.  Careless  throwing 
away  of  lighted  cigars  or  cigarettes. 

Careless  handling  and  upsetting  of  candles  or 
oil-lamps  on  the  stage. 

Storage  and  undue  accumulation  of  large  quan- 
tities of  scenic  decorations  or  inflammable 
material  of  any  kind  near  the  stage. 

Careless  handling  of  actors'  wardrobes  in  dress- 
ing-rooms. 

Use  of  stage  or  of  loft  over  auditorium  for  a 
carpenters'  or  painters'  shop. 

Even  where  the  indirect  causes  enumerated  under 
(a)  are  avoided  by  having  a  theatre  suitably  located, 
well  planned,  and  properly  constructed,  the  more 
direct  causes  of  fire  mentioned  under  (ft)  should  be 
carefully  guarded  against  by  good  management,  strict 
rules  and  regulations,  by  having  a  well-drilled  staff  of 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  51 

stage  employe's,  and  by  instituting  periodical  inspec- 
tions of  all  the  details  forming  together  the  equipment 
and  interior  arrangement.* 

Statistics  of  Theatre  Fires. 

Statistics  of  theatre  fires  show  that  out  of  a  list  of 
two  hundred  and  eighty-nine  fires  known  up  to  the 
year  1878, 

19  per  cent  started  in  daytime. 

5        "  '*        one  hour  before  beginning  of  performance. 

12        "  "        during  the  performance. 

24        "  "        within  two  hours  after  the  performance  was  over. 

39        "  "        during  the  night  following  the  performance. 

In  1 88 1,  when  these  statistics  included  three  hun- 
dred and  seventy-three  theatre  fires,  the  percentage 
remained  almost  the  same,  viz. : 

19.9  per  cent  of  the  fires  started  in  day-time. 

5.6       "  "         "         "        one  hour  before  the  beginning  of  the 

performance. 

II. 6       "  "         "         "        during  the  performance. 

22.6       "  "         "         "       within  two   hours  after  the  perform- 

ance was  over. 

40.3       "  "         "         "       during  the   night   following   the  per- 

formance. 

These  figures  would  tend  to  show  a  large  preponder- 
ance of  fires  immediately  following  a  performance,  and 
prove  conclusively  that  the  safety  of  theatres  depends 
largely  upon  a  careful  and  minute  inspection  of  the 
building  after  each  performance.  The  danger  of  fire, 
notwithstanding  the  above  figures,  is  really  greatest 
during  a  performance,  but  the  number  of  casualties  at 

*  See  also  Chapter  I. 


$2  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

these  hours  is  not  so  large  as  might  be  expected, 
because  of  the  stricter  and  more  careful  watching, 
upon  which  a  judicious  theatre  management  should 
wisely  insist. 

The  number  of  theatres  annually  destroyed  by  fire 
is  very  large.  According  to  the  carefully-collected 
statistics  of  Herr  Foelsch,  two  hundred  and  nine 
theatres  were  burned  in  the  eleven  years  from  1871  to 
1 88 1,  making  an  average  of  nineteen  such  buildings 
per  year. 

From  1882  to  1888  theatre  fires  have  occurred  as 
follows : 

In  1882,  25  fires.     In  1885,  8  fires.     In  1887,  18  fires. 
"  1883,  22  "      "  1886,  8  "      "  1888,  15  " 
"  1884,  10  " 

Many  of  these  fires  signify  not  only  loss  of  property, 
but  loss  of  life  as  well.  The  large  theatre-fire  calam- 
ities of  Brooklyn,  Nice,  Vienna,  Paris,  Exeter  (Eng- 
land), and  Oporto  (Portugal)  alone  were  the  cause  of 
the  loss  of  about  one  thousand  six  hundred  human 
lives. 

The  large  number  of  fires  annually  occurring  in 
theatres,  and  the  incidental  great  danger  to  the  people 
in  such  buildings,  is  easily  explained  by  the  many 
possible  causes  of  fire  cited  above.* 

General  Considerations. 

If  we  consider  the  building  only  as  such,  the  subject 
naturally  divides  itself  into  the  prevention  and  the 
extinction  of  fire.  But,  looking  at  it  from  a  different 

*  See  also  Chapter  I. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  53 

point  of  view,  and  taking  into  consideration  that  dur- 
ing certain  hours  of  the  day  or  evening  the  building  is 
occupied  by  a  vast  crowd  in  the  auditorium,  and  by 
actors,  actresses,  supers,  chorus,  ballet-girls,  and  stage 
employe's,  often  numbering  several  hundred  people 
on  the  stage,  the  safety  of  the  building  becomes  of 
secondary  importance  in  case  a  fire  should  break  out 
shortly  before  or  during  a  performance.  It  then,  from 
a  humane  point  of  view,  clearly  becomes  chiefly  a 
question  of  the  safety  of  the  spectators,  the  performers, 
and  the  stage-hands. 

It  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  both  the 
audience  and  the  people  on  the  stage  are  much  less  in 
danger  in  a  well-planned,  well-constructed,  and  prop- 
erly equipped  theatre  than  in  a  defective,  antiquated, 
highly  combustible  structure,  in  which  means  for  pro- 
tection of  life,  means  for  quick  egress,  and  appliances 
for  quickly  putting  out  a  fire  at  its  start  are  not  pro- 
vided, and  where  both  life  and  property  are  exposed 
to  undue  risks. 

Then  again,  in  all  buildings  devoted  to  amusement, 
recreation,  instruction,  or  worship,  in  which  a  large 
number  of  people  congregate,  it  is  very  often  not 
so  much  a  question  of  danger  from  fire  as  it  is  of 
danger  from  a  panic.  Even  where  there  is  no  real 
danger  a  panic  often  ensues.  The  lives  of  the 
theatre-goers,  of  the  actors  and  stage  employes,  are 
imperilled,  not  only  by  the  possibility  of  being  burned 
to  death,  but  they  are,  perhaps  to  a  much  greater 
degree,  exposed  to  the  direct  effects  of  shock  or 
fright,  or  to  bodily  injuries  resulting  from  a  rush,  by 
falling  or  being  trampled  upon,  or  being  crushed ;  and, 


54  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

finally,  there  is  the  danger  of  becoming  asphyxiated 
by  the  thick  smoke  and  the  fire  gases,  or  being  over- 
come by  the  heat  of  a  conflagration.  A  theatre  build- 
ing may  be  endangered  by  fire  from  without  as  well 
as  from  within,  and  in  both  cases,  if  the  fire  breaks 
out  during  a  performance,  the  chief  danger  to  the 
public  arises  from  a  sudden  panic. 

It  obviously  follows,  first,  that  theatres  must  be  so 
planned,  constructed,  equipped,  and  managed  as  not 
only  to  prevent  fires,  but  also  to  prevent  a  panic; 
second,  that  there  should  be  provided,  in  every  theatre 
building,  not  only  means  for  fire  extinguishment, 
but  also  for  protection,  in  case  of  an  outbreak  of  fire, 
against  the  flames,  the  smoke,  and  the  deadly  gases 
of  combustion,  the  smoke  constituting  the  greatest 
danger,  as  more  people  are  suffocated  than  burned  to 
death  in  a  theatre  fire;  and  third,  and  most  important, 
that  to  guard  against  a  threatening  panic,  crush,  or 
stampede,  there  should  be  ample  means  for  personal 
safety  and  rapid  egress. 

The  safety  of  the  spectators  and  of  the  stage  people 
is  always  of  primary  importance,  and  the  safety  of  the 
building  as  regards  its  fire-resisting  structural  features 
is  only  second  in  order,  except  in  so  far  as  it  naturally 
adds  to  the  protection  of  the  persons  in  the  theatre. 
In  other  words,  so  far  as  the  safety  of  human  life  is  con- 
cerned, a  combustible  theatre  may  sometimes  be  less 
objectionable,  if  ample  means  of  protection  and  safety- 
appliances  are  provided,  and  if  the  arrangement  of 
stairs  and  exits  is  such  as  to  permit  the  quick  empty- 
ing of  the  theatre  in  from  two" to  three  minutes,  than 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  5$ 

a  so-called  fire-proof  theatre  with  insufficient  safety 
appliances  and  lacking  suitable  means  of  egress. 

The  prevention  of  fire  in  theatres  is  accomplished 
by  proper  location,  planning,  construction,  interior 
arrangement  and  equipment,  by  proper  management, 
and  by  periodical  inspections.  But  we  should  not 
forget  that  only  the  fulfilling  of  all  the  requirements 
combined  provides  perfect  safety.  For  instance,  a 
free  site  alone  does  not  preclude  theatre  disasters. 
The  Paris  Opera  Comique  stood  on  an  open  square,  the 
Exeter  Theatre  had  three  fronts  on  streets,  the  Opera 
House  at  Nice  and  the  Vienna  Ring  Theatre  practi- 
cally stood  detached:  but  they  lacked  sufficient  and 
proper  exits;  the  stairs  were  not  lighted,  and  in  some 
cases  the  doors  opened  inward.  Then,  again,  fire-proof 
building  construction  alone  will  not  prevent  the  oc- 
currence of  theatre  panics,  where  stairs  are  too  nar- 
row, passages  ill-lighted  or  quite  dark,  or  in  case 
the  smoke  from  a  stage  fire  is  drawn  through  a 
wire  curtain  into  the  auditorium  by  the  suction  of 
the  ventilator  over  the  auditorium  gasalier.  Again, 
it  is  not  sufficient  to  build  afire-proof  proscenium-wall 
to  completely  separate  the  stage  from  the  auditorium, 
but  the  large  opening  in  the  proscenium-wall  must  be 
provided  with  an  efficient  fire-curtain  and  the  other 
openings  with  self-closing  fire-doors,  to  keep  out  the 
flames  and  smoke,  at  least  long  enough  for  the  audi- 
ence to  make  their  escape.  Finally,  the  most  elaborate 
system  and  complicated  mechanism  of  stand-pipes, 
sprinklers,  iron  curtain,  stage-ventilator,  etc.,  fail  to 
protect  a  theatre  audience  if  the  exits  are  inadequate 
and  if  the  building  cannot  be  completely  emptied  in 


56  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

a  very  few  minutes.  What  is  needed,  therefore,  is 
the  combination  of  all  known  elements  of  safety. 

The  prevention  of  panic  in  a  theatre  requires,  first, 
the  avoidance  of  all  usual  causes  of  fire,  and,  second, 
the  elimination  of  defects  in  construction  and  plan, 
such  as  narrow  and  dark  passages,  winding  staircases, 
crowded  seats,  insufficient  number  of  aisles  and  exits, 
doors  opening  inward,  and  a  badly  hemmed-in  site. 
The  audience  must  know  that  it  will  be  able  to  leave 
the  building  quickly  and  safely  in  case  of  a  false  alarm, 
or  a  panic  caused  by  a  fire-alarm  in  the  neighborhood, 
or  by  the  sudden  accidental  extinguishment  of  the 
lights  in  the  theatre,  or  by  the  falling  of  a  part  of  the 
scenery  or  decoration,  or  from  any  other  disturbance 
of  the  performance. 

The  means  of  protection  in  case  of  fire  include  the 
use  of  the  fire-proof  curtain  to  cut  off  the  audience 
from  the  sight  of  the  fire  and  from  the  smoke  and 
fire  gases,  the  use  of  the  stage-roof  ventilator  to 
remove  quickly  the  smoke  incident  to  a  stage  fire,  and 
means  for  fighting  the  fire,  such  as  a  sufficient  fire  and 
water  service,  ample  fire  appliances,  fire-alarm,  etc. 

The  means  of  safety  in  the  event  of  a  panic  are: 
for  the  audience,  plenty  of  plainly  marked  exits,  wide 
aisles  without  steps  or  obstructions,  well-lighted  and 
wide  corridors  and  staircases,  plenty  of  wide  stairs  with 
strong  hand-rails  on  both  sides,  suitable  fire-escapes, 
wide  doors  opening  outward  and  preventing  a  jam ; 
and  for  the  theatre  employes  and  the  actors,  isolated 
dressing-rooms,  fire-proof  stairs,  a  sufficient  number  of 
separate  and  direct  exits  from  the  stage  to  outdoors, 


TtfEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  $? 

and  safe  means  of  retreat  from  the  fly-galleries  and  the 
rigging-loft. 

From  whatever  point  of  view  we  consider  the  sub- 
ject— whether  we  are  concerned  with  the  safety  of  the 
building  and  its  usually  valuable  and  expensive  con- 
tents, or  with  the  safety  of  the  theatre  audience  and 
the  stage  people;  whether  we  wish  to  prevent  a  panic 
or  a  conflagration — the  principal  requirements  of  a 
modern  theatre  building,  and  the  principal  safeguards, 
as  given  below,  must,  for  absolute  security,  be  insisted 
upon. 

Location  and  Site. 

The  ideal  site  for  a  theatre  is  on  a  wide  public 
square,  the  building  having  approaches  and  standing 
free  and  isolated  on  all  four  sides.  For  absolute 
safety  this  is  really  the  only  available  site.  It  affords 
the  best  opportunity,  not  only  for  architectural  effect, 
but  also  for  judiciously  providing  and  arranging 
numerous  exits  from  all  parts  of  the  house.  Such  a 
site  is,  however,  rarely  attainable  in  our  large  cities, 
where  the  price  of  land  is  enormously  high.  If  the 
requirement  of  a  free  site  were  insisted  upon,  it  would 
cause  the  building  to  cost  too  much,  and  would  thereby 
render  more  difficult  theatrical  enterprises  which  in 
this  country  are  not  subsidized  by  the  Government, 
but  are  private  commercial  enterprises. 

The  opposite  extreme,  namely,  a  theatre  building 
entirely  surrounded  or  hemmed  in  by  other  buildings, 
is  of  course  inadmissible,  owing  to  the  constant  ex- 
posure of  such  a  theatre  to  danger  from  outside,  and 


5$  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

on  account  of  the  increased  difficulty  in  saving  life  in 
case  of  a  fire  or  a  panic  within.  Theatres  having 
entrances  or  exits  necessarily  carried  through  other 
buildings  are  bad  and  dangerous.  Windows  or  open- 
ings in  the  outside  walls  of  a  theatre  looking  towards 
other  buildings  in  close  contiguity  to  the  same  are 
also  a  constant  menace  and  danger. 

If  a  theatre  building  is  located  in  a  street  block,  it 
should  have  at  least  one  front  on  the  street,  and 
there  should  be  provided  in  the  plan  wide  open 
courts  at  both  sides.  If  the  building  is  a  corner 
building,  located  at  the  intersection  of  two  thorough- 
fares, there  should  be  one  such  court.  The  width  of 
these  courts  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
people  which  the  theatre  is  expected  to  accommodate. 
The  New  York  Building  Law  requires  the  courts  to 
be  not  less  than  7  feet  wide  each  for  1000  persons,  8 
feet  for  1000  to  1800  persons,  and  10  feet  for  a  theatre 
of  a  capacity  above  1800  people.  The  court  should 
begin  on  the  line  of  the  proscenium-wall,  and  should 
extend  in  front  to  the  wall  dividing  the  lobby  from 
the  auditorium.  Separate  corridors  should  continue 
from  there  through  the  front  superstructure  to  the 
street.  These  corridors,  according  to  the  New  York 
law,  should  not  be  reduced  more  than  3  feet  in  width, 
whereas  it  would  seem  much  safer  to  continue  them 
as  near  as  possible  the  full  width  to  the  street.  The 
outer  opening  should  have  iron  folding  gates  or  doors 
opening  outward,  and  kept  open  during  and  at  the 
end  of  each  performance. 

Better  than  a  building  on  a  corner  lot  is  a  theatre 
standing  free  on  three  sides,  owing  to  the  reduced 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  59 

danger   from   the   adjacent   buildings  or  surrounding 
stores  and  shops. 

Plan  of  Building. 

The  theatre  plan  should  be  simple,  compact,  and 
clear,  and  as  much  as  possible  symmetrical  as  far  as 
entrances  and  stairs  are  concerned. 

To  the  mind  of  the  theatre-going  public  the  plan 
resolves  itself  into  only  two  principal  divisions — that 
before  and  that  behind  the  curtain.  This,  in  practice, 
hardly  covers  the  requirements. 

All  theatres  should  be  planned  with  a  number  of 
internal  divisions,  each  of  which  is  to  be  made  in  itself 
as  fire-resisting  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
fire  from  one  part  to  another.  There  should  be  in 
every  theatre,  whatever  its  size  may  be,  at  least  four 
principal  and  distinct  internal  divisions,  each  entirely 
separate  and  isolated  from  the  rest,  as  follows: 

(1)  The  auditorium; 

(2)  The  stage; 

(3)  The    dressing-rooms,    workshops,   offices,    and 
wardrobes; 

(4)  The  stairs,  foyers,  lobbies,  corridors,   passages, 
cloak-rooms,   refreshment-rooms,    the    entrances    and 
exits. 

The  auditorium  comprises  the  various  parts  where 
the  spectators  are  seated,  namely,  the  parquet,  or 
orchestra,  and  dress-circle,  the  balcony,  gallery,  the 
tier  of  boxes,  and,  above  all  these,  the  auditorium  loft 
and  roof.  Each  subdivision  or  tier  in  the  auditorium 
should  have  separate  entrances  and  exits.  The  num- 
ber of  tiers  in  all  theatres,  except  very  large  opera- 


60  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

houses,  should  be  restricted,  because  the  danger  is 
increased  as  the  building  increases  in  height.  As  a 
rule,  there  should  be  only  two  tiers — the  balcony  and 
the  gallery.  The  fewer  steps  necessary  to  reach  the 
street  from  the  different  parts  of  the  auditorium,  the 
safer  will  the  audiences  be.  In  nearly  all  large  thea- 
tre catastrophes  the  largest  number  of  those  killed 
were  persons  who  occupied  the  upper  galleries.  For 
the  seme  reason  it  should  be  prohibited  to  place  the 
main  auditorium  on  the  second  floor  for  the  sake  of 
utilizing  the  street  floor  for  stores.  The  New  York 
Building  Law  requires  that  the  main  front  entrance  to 
the  theatre  be  not  more  than  four  steps  above  the 
sidewalk.  It  is  desirable  that  there  should  be  wide 
corridors  running  around  each  gallery  or  tier,  of  capac- 
ity to  hold  the  total  number  of  persons  on  each  divis- 
ion. There  should  be  no  obstructions  of  any  kind  in 
these  corridors. 

The  stage  may  be  subdivided  into  the  under-stage, 
the  stage  proper,  the  wings,  the  fly-galleries,  the 
rigging-loft  or  gridiron,  and  the  stage  roof. 

The  stage  is  the  special  domain  of  the  actors  and 
singers,  of  the  scenic  artist,  of  the  theatre  machinist, 
and  of  the  gas  or  electrical  engineer.  It  is  also  the 
chief  point  of  danger  in  a  theatre,  because  of  the  large 
amount  of  constantly  changed  and  shifted  combusti- 
ble scene  material,  and  because  of  the  numerous  and 
powerful*  illuminants  and  their  incidental  heat  and 
liability  to  set  decorations  or  hoisting-machinery  on 
fire. 

The  general  term  * '  stage  ' '  includes  several  divisions, 
of  which  the  stage  floor  proper  is  the  largest  and  con- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  6l 

stitutes  the  scene  of  the  play.  The  stage  floor  has 
on  each  end  immovable  sides  or  wings,  whereas  its 
middle  portion  is  so  framed  as  to  be  changeable  or 
removable.  As  a  rule,  the  stage  floor  is  built  with 
a  slope  towards  the  foot-lights,  although  the  more 
recent  theatres  have  level  stage  floors.  The  floor  is 
constructed  of  narrow,  well-matched,  tongued-and- 
grooved  boards  of  well-dried  pine,  and  it  is  planed 
absolutely  smooth.  The  space  directly  under  the 
stage  is  taken  up  by  the  traps  operating  the  movable 
parts  of  the  stage  floor,  and  by  the  machinery  belong- 
ing thereto. 

The  fly-galleries  are  located  on  both  sides  of  the 
stage  at  such  a  height  above  the  wings  as  to  enable 
the  proper  manipulation  of  all  borders,  drops,  etc. 
As  a  rule,  smaller  theatres  have  only  one  fly-gallery, 
but  sometimes  two  or  more  are  arranged,  one  above 
the  other.  In  some  theatres  the  fly-galleries  are  con- 
nected at  the  back  of  the  stage  by  a  painters'  bridge 
thrown  horizontally  across  the  stage,  and  either  made 
stationary  or  else  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  raised  or 
lowered. 

Above  the  fly-galleries  the  rigging-loft  or  gridiron 
is  built  across  the  whole  stage,  and  is  covered  with 
narrow  slats,  laid  some  inches  apart.  Here  are  located 
the  blocks  and  drums,  the  ropes  and  pulleys  to  which 
the  drops,  borders,  and  curtains  are  attached.  Above 
the  rigging-loft  is  the  stage  roof,  with  the  stage 
ventilators  or  sliding  skylights. 

The  dressing-rooms  for  actors  and  actresses  are 
generally  arranged  in  tiers  on  one  or  on  both  sides  of 
the  stage.  Of  dressing-rooms  there  is  a  more  or  less 


62  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

large  number,  according  to  the  size,  purpose,  and 
special  use  of  the  theatre ;  and  besides  the  single  rooms 
for  the  "  star  "  and  the  prominent  actors,  there  should 
be  larger  dressing-rooms  for  the  "  supers,"  for  the 
male  and  female  chorus,  and  for  the  members  of  the 
corps  de  ballet.  Dressing-rooms  under  the  stage,  or 
in  the  basement,  generally  without  light  and  air  and 
unsanitary,  are  an  abomination,  and  should  be  pro- 
hibited. This  division  of  a  theatre  generally  also 
contains  the  theatre-manager's  office.  In  larger 
theatres  there  should  be,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned, a  room  for  the  stage-manager,  a  room  for  the 
music  conductor,  a  room  for  the  orchestra,  rooms  for 
rehearsal  of  the  chorus  and  ballet,  offices  for  the  scenic 
artist,  rooms  for  the  painter,  the  costumer,  the  prop- 
erty-master, the  master  or  stage  carpenter,  the  stage 
machinist,  the  gas  engineer  and  the  electrician,  the 
chief  engineer  in  charge  of  the  boiler  and  pump  plant, 
and  other  members  of  the  theatre  staff,  besides  a  large 
room  for  wardrobes  and  costumes. 

Scenery-making,  scene-painting,  and  carpentering 
on  a  large  scale  should  not  be  permitted  in  the  theatre 
proper.  There  should  be  provided,  in  a  separate 
annex  or  fire-proof  building,  such  paint-rooms,  carpen- 
ter-shops, scene-docks,  store-rooms,  for  timber,  furni- 
ture, etc.,  and  other  workshops  as  the  business  of  the 
theatre  may  require.  The  stage,  the  under-stage,  or 
the  fly-galleries  should  never  be  used  as  a  carpenter  or 
paint  shop,  nor  should  such  work  be  performed,  as  is 
often  the  case  in  the  older  theatres,  in  the  loft  over 
the  auditorium.  Neither  should  this  loft  be  appro- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  63 

priated  for  the  storage  of  inflammable  material.  The 
rear  of  the  stage  should  not  be  used  as  a  scene-dock. 

The  combination  of  a  hotel  and  a  theatre,  or  of  a 
theatre  and  office-building,  which  is  still  quite  common, 
cannot  be  approved  from  the  point  of  view  of  safety, 
as  each  part  endangers  the  other.  No  living  or  sleep- 
ing apartments  should  be  contemplated  in  the  plan  of 
a  theatre;  no  workshop,  manufacturing  establishment, 
or  storehouses  should  be  combined  with  it;  and  on 
the  street  floor  stores  should  only  be  provided  if 
separately  fireproofed,  if  completely  isolated  from  the 
theatre  by  thick  brick  walls,  and  if  the  stores  are  kept 
accessible  from  the  street  only. 

The  furnace  or  heating  apparatus  and  the  steam- 
boiler  room  should  never  be  placed  under  any  part  of 
the  stage,  the  auditorium,  or  the  stairways.  It  is 
advisable,  where  a  separate  building  for  the  boiler 
cannot  be  obtained,  to  place  it  in  a  vault  under  the 
sidewalk. 

The  fourth  division  comprises  the  foyers,  the  thea- 
tre lobby,  the  toilet-rooms,  lavatories,  and  retiring- 
rooms  for  the  public,  the  principal  stairs  for  the 
various  tiers,  the  corridors,  passages,  and  the  entrances 
and  exits.  The  corridors,  foyers,  and  lobbies  should 
be  roomy,  and  amply  large  to  furnish  standing-room 
for  all  persons  in  each  division.  The  lobbies  should 
be  separated  from  the  auditorium  by  fire-proof  walls. 
Better  still  is  the  plan  of  having  large  open  safety 
terraces  or  open  colonnades  on  both  sides  of  the 
auditorium,  with  stairs  leading  to  the  street,  thereby 
preventing  all  possibility  of  a  jam  or  crush. 

There  should  be  provided,  for  every  section  of  the 


4  TtiEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

house,  suitable  and  well-arranged  toilet-rooms  for  men 
and  for  women.  If  cloak-rooms  or  wardrobes  for  the 
public  are  included  in  the  plan,  they  should  be  located 
near  the  entrances,  but  their  arrangement  must  be  such 
that  persons  who  wait  at  the  cloak-rooms  do  not  inter- 
fere with  the  retiring  audience  passing  through  the 
corridors  to  the  exits. 

All  corridors,  passages,  stairs,  and  aisles  must  be 
planned  to  be  free  from  all  obstructions,  such  as 
wardrobes,  refreshment-rooms,  or  radiators,  and  so  as 
to  permit  the  quick  emptying  of  the  house.  The 
crossing  or  meeting  of  two  streams  of  people  on  their 
way  out,  either  in  the  lobbies,  or  in  the  passages,  or 
on  the  stairs,  must  be  prevented. 

The  stage  and  the  auditorium  form  two  large  spaces 
which  cannot  well  be  subdivided.  All  other  parts  of 
the  theatre  should  be  subdivided  into  as  many  distinct 
and  separate  fire  risks  as  possible. 

The  four  principal  divisions  of  a  theatre  should  be 
separated  and  completely  isolated  from  each  other  by 
fire-proof  walls  and  doors.  Each  division  should  be 
enclosed  in  fire-proof  walls  and  made  as  incombustible 
as  possible.  Likewise  should  all  horizontal  subdivi- 
sions, the  ceilings,  roofs,  and  stairs,  be  made  fireproof, 
in  order  to  localize  and  confine  a  fire,  so  that  it  can 
burn  itself  out.  There  should  be  as  few  openings  of 
communication  in  the  various  fire-proof  divisions  as 
possible,  and  where  these  openings  are  necessary, 
there  should  be  means  provided  for  closing  them,  in 
case  of  fire,  by  fire-doors  opening  outward.  It  is  most 
important  that  the  stage  be  completely  separated  from 
the  auditorium  by  a  fire-proof  proscenium-wall,  carried 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  65 

from  the  cellar  to  a  height  of  three  feet  above  the 
roof,  the  full  width  of  the  building.  This  wall  should 
have  only  a  few  openings,  namely,  the  large  pro- 
scenium-opening, closed  by  a  safety  or  fire  curtain,  of 
iron  or  asbestos,  and  not  more  than  two  other  open- 
ings, at  or  below  the  stage  level,  closed  by  automatic 
or  self-closing  fire-doors  without  locks  or  bolts.  There 
should  be  no  communication  between  the  stage  build- 
ing and  the  auditorium  at  any  point  above  the  level 
of  the  stage. 

Construction  of  Building. 

A  theatre  building,  to  be  structurally  safe,  requires 
to  be  constructed  wholly  of  fire-resisting  materials. 
The  natural  tendency  being  to  use  the  largest  part  of 
the  available  funds  for  the  exterior  and  interior  decora- 
tion of  the  theatre,  it  is  advisable  that  the  method  of 
construction  and  the  building  materials  used  should 
be  regulated  by  strict  building  laws. 

Woodwork  is  to  be  avoided  in  the  construction. 
Its  use  must  be  confined  to  the  trim  of  the  doors  and 
windows,  the  usual  doors,  and  the  auditorium  floor 
and  platforms.  The  floors  of  corridors,  foyers,  and 
lobbies  should  be  tiled.  Wooden  wainscoting  should 
be  avoided,  and  marble  or  tiling  for  stairs,  lobbies  and 
foyers  and  toilet-rooms,  and  stucco-work  for  the 
decoration  of  the  auditorium  and  the  boxes  should 
take  its  place.  Exposed  ironwork  should  not  be  used 
anywhere,  it  being  unsafe,  except  when  cased  with 
fire-proof  material.  Brick  and  terra-cotta  should  be 
used  in  preference  to  stone.  The  well-known  prin- 
ciples of  sound,  fire-resisting  construction  should  be 


66  THEATRE  FIRES  AND    PANICS: 

applied  to  all  parts  of  the  theatre  building.  All  main 
division  walls  should  be  strong  and  solidly  built,  well 
bonded  together,  and  constructed  of  brick.  These,  as 
well  as  all  staircase  walls,  should  be  run  at  least  three 
feet  above  the  roof  to  form  fire-walls,  All  vertical 
and  horizontal  divisions  should  be  fire-proof,  and  this 
refers  not  only  to  the  main  divisions  of  the  plan,  but 
likewise  to  all  partitions.  The  external  and  internal 
walls  must  be  well  bonded  together. 

Wherever  openings  are  provided  in  fire-walls  for 
communication,  they  should  be  closed  with  fire-resist- 
ing doors.  The  doors  should  have  stone  saddles,  and 
should  be  constructed  either  of  boiler-iron,  or,  better, 
of  double  layers  of  planks  of  oak,  lined  on  both  sides 
and  at  the  ends  with  tin. 

The  stage  proper  is  the  place  where  an  immense 
amount  of  easily  combustible  material  is  necessarily 
crowded  together.  It  should  be  the  special  aim  to 
make  this  part  of  the  building,  where  a  fire  once 
started  is  much  more  dangerous  and  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  fight  than  in  other  parts  of  the  house,  as  fire- 
resisting  as  possible. 

The  floor  of  the  stage  proper  must  necessarily  be 
constructed  of  wood,  on  account  of  the  numerous 
traps;  but  the  fixed  portion  of  the  stage  floor  in  the 
wings  or  sides  of  the  stage,  the  entire  fly-galleries, 
and  the  gridiron,  or  rigging-loft,  except  the  wooden 
floor  covering  the  same,  should  be  built  of  iron  or  steel 
beams  and  made  fire-proof,  and  the  pin  rails  of  the 
fly-galleries  should  be  of  iron  or  steel.  The  roof  of 
the  stage  should  be  constructed  of  iron,  and  covered 
with  slate,  tile,  or  other  fire-proof  material. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  67 

In  the  fitting  up  of  the  under-stage  woodwork 
should  be  avoided.  This  is  the  special  department 
of  the  stage  carpenter,  who  usually  clings  to  old- 
fashioned  traditions  and  the  use  of  antiquated  appa- 
ratus. Much  of  the  equipment  of  the  whole  stage, 
the  stage  machinery,  the  traps,  the  fly-rails,  the  hoist- 
ing apparatus,  etc.,  could  be  made  safer  and  more  dur- 
able by  substituting  iron  and  steel  for  wood,  by  using 
hydraulic  lifting  machinery  with  steel  wires  in  place  of 
the  old-fashioned  hoists,  sheaves,  and  ropes  still  so 
much  in  use.  Suggestions  tending  to  improve  the  con- 
struction of  the  stage  were  made  by  the  "Asphaleia" 
Society  of  Vienna  soon  after  the  destruction  by  fire  of 
the  Ring  Theatre  in  Vienna,  where  several  hundred  per- 
sons perished  by  fire  and  smoke.  A  number  of  Euro- 
pean theatres,  such  as  those  at  Halle  in  Germany,  and 
at  Buda-Pesth  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  Royal 
Prussian  "  Schauspielhaus "  in  Berlin,  have  been 
fitted  up  in  this  manner  with  most  satisfactory  results. 
Up  to  the  time  of  writing,  there  is  in  this  country 
but  one  solitary  instance  of  this  advanced  method  of 
stage  construction,  namely,  in  the  Auditorium  Thea- 
tre, in  Chicago.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  "  As- 
phaleia  "  stage-setting  much  of  the  scenery  and  scene- 
setting  is  painted  on  thin  sheet  iron,  held  in  light  iron 
frames. 

Wherever  woodwork  is  necessarily  employed  in 
the  construction  of  the  stage  and  its  accessories,  it  may 
be  made  fire-resisting  by  impregnation,  or  at  least  by 
the  application  of  fire-proof  paint.  Even  the  ordinary 
whitewashing  of  woodwork  helps  to  protect  the  same. 

The   proscenium-wall,    forming   the    main    division 


68  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

between  stage  and  auditorium,  must  be  a  fire-wall, 
built  of  brick,  and  the  stage-opening  should  be  arched 
over.  The  moulded  frame  or  other  finish,  and  all 
decorative  features  around  the  proscenium-opening, 
should  consist  of  incombustible  material. 

The  auditorium  should  likewise  be  fire-proof  in  all 
its  parts.  The  main  floor  and  the  tiers  should  be  con- 
structed of  fire-proof  iron  beams,  and  brick  or  tile 
arches.  Iron  columns  for  the  support  of  iron  girders 
should  be  encased  with  fire-proof  materials.  The 
fronts  of  galleries  and  balconies  should  be  formed  of 
fire-proof  material.  The  ceilings  of  the  auditorium, 
the  balcony,  and  the  galleries  should  be  fire-proof.  The 
auditorium  roof  should  be  constructed  of  iron,  and  the 
roof  covered  with  slate  or  tile.  All  boxes  in  the 
auditorium,  and  the  partitions  between  boxes,  should 
consist  of  fire-proof  material.  Plaster  should  be  used 
in  preference  to  wood  or  papier-mach^  for  the  decora- 
tive treatment  of  the  boxes. 

The  upper  floors  in  the  auditorium  may  be  laid  with 
wooden  boards;  but  there  should  be  no  hollow  spaces 
underneath,  and  the  floors  should  be  laid  on  sleepers 
deeply  bedded  in  concrete.  The  ceiling  of  the  cellar 
should  be  fireproofed  with  I-beams  and  brick  arches, 
or  other  fire-proof  construction,  except,  as  stated 
above,  directly  under  the  middle  portion  of  the  stage. 

The  actors'  dressing-rooms  and  all  other  rooms 
necessary  on  the  stage  end  of  the  building  should  be 
fire-proof  in  all  parts.  Particular  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  dressing-rooms  and  storage-rooms  for  ward- 
robes. The  walls  and  the  corridors  separating  the 
actors'  dressing-rooms  from  the  stage,  and  all  dressing- 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  69 

room  partitions,  must  be  fire-proof.  All  doors  should 
be  of  iron  or  other  fire-resisting  construction.  All 
shelving  and  cupboards  in  all  dressing-rooms,  property- 
rooms,  wardrobes,  and  storage-rooms  should  be  con- 
structed of  metal  or  slate,  or  other  approved  fire-proof 
material. 

Finally,  all  halls,  passages,  and  foyers  should  have 
fire-proof  ceilings  and  floors,  and  all  staircases  through- 
out the  theatre  should  be  constructed  in  a  fire-proof 
manner. 

All  partitions  must  be  built  of  fire-proof  blocks. 
There  should  be  no  canvas  covering  of  walls,  and 
wooden  wainscoting  should  be  used  sparingly  and  only 
when  applied  directly  to  solid  fire-proof  filling. 

All  windows  in  a  theatre  should  be  arranged  to 
open,  and  none  of  the  windows  in  outside  walls  should 
have  fixed  sashes  or  iron  grilles. 

Staircases,  Entrances  and  Exits,  and  Fire-escapes. 

The  planning  and  construction  of  the  staircases  and 
exits  of  a  theatre  are  of  the  greatest  importance, 
because  they  form  the  principal  means  of  safety  for  an 
excited  or  terror-stricken  audience  when  a  fire  breaks 
out,  or  when  there  is  a  sudden  panic  from  any  cause. 
For  this  reason  all  stairs  and  exits  must  be  so  arranged 
as  to  disperse  an  audience  as  quickly  as  possible.  The 
emptying  of  a  well-planned  theatre  should  not  require 
more  than  two  or  three  minutes. 

All  stairs  in  a  theatre  should  be  fire-proof,  and 
encased  in  fire-walls.  Open  stair-well  construction 
should  be  avoided  as  dangerous.  The  stairs  should 
be  from  four  to  six  feet  wide,  according  to  the  maxi- 


70  THEATRE.  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

mum  number  of  people  for  which  they  are  intended. 
The  minimum  width  for  fifty  persons  is  four  feet,  and 
six  inches  should  be  added  in  width  for  every  addi- 
tional fifty  people. 

All  stairs  should  have  easy  and  even  treads.  The 
risers  should  not  exceed  seven  and  one  half  inches, 
and  the  width  of  treads  should  be  not  less  than  ten 
and  one  half  inches.  Winding  stairs  should  be  pro- 
hibited, except  in  case  the  winders  have  treads  not 
less  than  seven  and  one  half  inches  wide  at  the  nar- 
rowest part.  Single  or  double  steps  should  never  be 
permitted,  as  they  form  dangerous  stumbling-blocks. 
Long  flights  of  stairs  must  be  broken  by  several  land- 
ings, at  least  four  feet  wide.  The  Boston  Building 
Law  calls  for  stair  flights  to  have  not  less  than  three, 
nor  more  than  fifteen,  steps. 

There  should  be,  on  each  side  of  all  stairs  and  land- 
ings, well-fastened  hand-rails  turned  into  the  wall  at 
the  ends  of  stairs.  Very  wide  stairs  are  preferably 
divided  by  a  strong  metal  baluster  or  intermediate 
central  rail.  All  staircase  halls  should  be  made  as 
smoke-proof  as  possible.  The  stairs  for  the  balcony 
and  gallery  should  not  communicate  with  the  cellar,  so 
that  smoke  from  a  cellar  fire  may  not  rise  up  through 
the  staircase. 

There  should  be  at  least  two  entirely  separate 
stairs  for  each  part  of  the  audience,  one  for  each  side 
of  the  building.  Inasmuch  as  the  occupants  of  the 
gallery  have  the  longest  way  to  the  street,  and  also 
because  the  experience  of  theatre  catastrophes  teaches 
that  this  part  of  the  audience  is  the  one  most  endan- 
gered in  case  of  a  panic,  there  should  really  be  more 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  Jl 

stairs  and  exits  for  the  highest  tier,  although  in  the 
theatres  erected  in  the  past  this  precaution  has  seldom, 
if  ever,  been  observed.  The  stairs  serving  different 
tiers  should  not  communicate  with  each  other,  and 
the  meeting  of  two  streams  of  people  on  the  same 
stairs  should  always  be  avoided.  Each  portion  of  the 
audience,  the  parquet,  the  balcony,  and  the  gallery, 
should  leave  by  separate  stairs  and  exits.  Each  tier 
should  also  have  separate  wide  corridors  running  all 
around,  and  leading  to  a  foyer  and  to  the  staircases. 

It  is  usual  to  calculate  two  exits  for  300  persons, 
and  three  for  500  persons,  not  including  the  outside 
fire-escapes.  The  more  exits  there  are,  the  less 
liability  of  fierce  struggles  and  jams  during  a  panic, 
and  the  less  danger  there  is  of  old  or  weak  persons 
becoming  hurt. 

The  planning  ^f  the  means  of  egress,  the  exits,  and 
fire-escapes  in  such  a  way  as  to  effect  a  quiet  and 
quick  emptying  of  a  theatre  requires  the  most  careful 
study.  All  aisles,  corridors,  passages,  and  stairs 
should  be  of  even  or  increasing  width,  must  not  be  tor- 
tuous, and  should  have  no  obstructions  of  any  kind, 
such  as  pay-boxes,  cloak-rooms,  refreshment-counters, 
etc.  All  passages  leading  to  exits  must  be  at  least 
four  feet  wide. 

The  best  arrangement  and  judicious  location  of  the 
exits  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  site  of  the 
theatre.  If  the  same  permits  placing  plenty  of  wide 
and  easily  reached  exits  on  all  sides  of  the  building, 
the  safety  of  the  audience  is  assured.  The  more  the 
audience  can  be  subdivided,  the  quicker  can  a  theatre 
be  emptied. 


72  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

The  minimum  width  of  exits  for  500  or  less  persons, 
according  to  both  the  Boston  and  New  York  theatre 
laws,  is  five  feet,  and  twenty  inches  shall  be  added  in 
width  for  each  additional  100  persons.  The  exits 
must  likewise  be  free  from  projections  or  obstructions 
of  any  kind. 

Many  lives  have  been  lost  in  theatre  catastrophes 
owing  to  faulty  arrangement  of  the  doors.  It  is  im- 
perative that  all  exit  doors  be  made  to  open  outward, 
to  prevent  a  jam  in  case  of  a  panic.  The  doors  in 
corridors  must,  moreover,  be  so  hung  as  not  to  become 
an  obstruction  in  the  passageway.  Sliding  doors 
should  never  be  used.  Emergency  exits  or  doors, 
which  are  frequently  advocated,  are  not  desirable. 
They  have  often  been  found  locked  when  needed,  and, 
moreover,  the  people  are  not  familiar  with  their  loca- 
tion. AIL  stairs  and  exit  doors  should  be  opened  for 
the  use  of  the  public  at  each  daily  and  nightly  per- 
formance. Exit  doors  should  have  proper  bolts  at 
shoulder  height. 

All  exits  should  be  as  conspicuous  as  possible  and 
should  be  plainly  marked  in  large  legible  letters,  and 
all  doors  not  leading  to  exits  should  be  lettered  "  no 
exit." 

In  addition  to  the  separate  stairs  mentioned  above, 
each  tier  should  have  exits  to  at  least  two  well-con- 
structed outside  iron  fire-escapes,  to  be  used  in  case 
the  retreat  by  the  inside  stairs  is  cut  off  by  smoke. 
All  such  fire-escapes,  to  be  of  any  use,  must  be  so 
constructed  with  regular  steps  that  they  can  be  used 
by  women  and  children.  These  outside  fire-escapes 
should  be  covered  with  metal  hoods  or  awnings  to 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  73 

prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  their  becoming  slippery 
and  difficult  to  use  when  covered  with  snow  and  ice 
in  winter  weather.  The  New  York  Law  requires  the 
fire-escape  balconies  to  be  four  feet  wide,  and  the  stairs 
to  have  not  more  than  eight-and-one-half-inch  risers 
and  at  least  nine-inch  treads.  They  must  be  built 
sufficiently  strong  to  carry  the  weight  of  a  large  crowd. 

The  same  care  and  attention  is  required  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  stairs  for  that  part  of  the  building  con- 
taining the  stage,  the  offices,  and  the  dressing-rooms. 
The  stairs  and  exits  for  the  actors  and  stage  hands 
should  be  entirely  separate  from  those  for  the  specta- 
tors, and  there  should  be  at  least  two  such  stairs  and 
exits,  preferably  one  at  each  end  of  the  stage.  There 
should  also  be  fire-proof  stairs  leading  from  the  fly- 
galleries  and  the  rigging-loft,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
stage,  these  places  being,  in  case  of  a  stage  fire,  among 
the  most  dangerous,  owing  to  the  rapid  rising  of  the 
smoke  and  the  flames.  It  will  be  remembered  that  at 
the  burning  of  the  Paris  Opera  Comique  the  majority 
of  the  audience  escaped,  while  many  chorus-singers 
and  ballet-girls  were  burned  to  death,  because  the 
stage  exits  and  stairs  were  lamentably  insufficient. 

Finally,  there  should  be  well-fastened  iron  ladders 
provided  on  the  outside  courts  and  leading  to  all  roofs 
of  the  building,  for  the  use  of  the  firemen. 

Aisles  and  Chairs. 

The  width  and  number  of  aisles  in  the  parquet, 
balcony,  and  gallery  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
theatre  and  the  number  of  seats  provided.  Many 


74  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

narrow  aisles  breaking  the  continuity  of  the  seats  are 
better  than  a  few  wide  aisles.  Aisles  should  be  straight 
and  leading  directly  to  the  exits,  or  else  the  direction 
of  the  nearest  exit  should  be  indicated  on  the  wall  by 
a  conspicuous  arrow.  The  aisles  should  widen  with 
the  number  of  rows  of  seats  which  they  serve.  The 
minimum  width  of  aisles  is  three  feet,  to  which  should 
be  added  one  and  one-half  inches  for  every  five  feet 
length  of  aisle. 

In  the  orchestra,  or  parquet,  there  should  be  no 
steps  in  the  aisles,  but  the  aisles  should  be  inclined 
under  a  gradient  of  not  more  than  one  in  ten.  Gra- 
dients should  likewise  be  used  for  differences  in  level 
between  the  aisles  and  the  open  courts. 

Aisles  should  never  be  obstructed  by  camp-stools  or 
movable  chairs,  which  become  a  source  of  danger  when 
overturned  during  a  panic,  nor  should  standing  in  the 
aisles  be  permitted. 

The  width  and  depth  of  the  chairs  or  seats  should 
not  reach  below  a  certain  minimum,  both  for  comfort's 
and  safety's  sake,  and  there  should  be  not  more  than 
thirteen  seats  between  two  aisles,  so  that  no  seat  in 
the  audience  has  more  than  six  seats  between  it  and 
the  aisle. 

The  framework  of  the  chairs  should  be  constructed 
of  fire-proof  materials,  the  chairs  should  be  firmly  and 
well  bolted,  or  otherwise  fastened  to  the  floor,  and 
the  seats  should  preferably  be  automatic,  i.e.,  self- 
raising.  In  any  case  they  must  be  hinged  so  as  to  be 
easily  raised  and  placed  out  of  the  way  to  facilitate 
the  emptying  of  the  rows  of  seats. 

Movable  chairs  should  be  allowed  only  in  the  boxes, 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  ?$ 

and  for  each  of  these  the  number  of  seats  should  be 
limited. 

Fire-proof  Curtain. 

The  stage  opening  in  the  proscenium-wall  should  be 
closed  by  means  of  a  fire-proof  curtain,  entirely  separat- 
ing the  stage  from  the  auditorium.  The  object  of  the 
curtain  is  to  prevent  a  fire  on  the  stage  or  in  the  flies 
from  leaping  over  into  the  auditorium,  and  to  interpose 
a  barrier  to  the  smoke  and  fire  gases  generated  in  a 
conflagration.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  chief  means 
of  safety  for  the  audience,  and  in  theatres  where  it  is 
installed,  kept  in  good  working  order,  and  let  down 
at  the  first  moment  of  danger  it  helps  to  enable  the 
audience  to  escape  unhurt  from  the  burning  building. 

Numerous  suggestions  have  been  made  regarding 
the  material  and  construction  of  fire-proof  curtains. 
The  three  principal  forms  adopted  in  practice  are  a 
curtain  of  wire  gauze,  a  curtain  built  of  corrugated 
iron,  and  asbestos  woven  curtains.  In  European 
theatres  the  first  two  kinds  have  been  tried,  whereas 
the  asbestos  fire-proof  curtain  is  chiefly  used  in  Ameri- 
can theatres. 

Curtains  made  of  wire  gauze  with  fine  mesh  have 
not  proved  successful  in  actual  use,  because  while  they 
keep  the  flames  from  spreading  across  the  stage  open- 
ing into  the  auditorium,  they  allow  the  smoke  to  pass, 
and  also  because  they  increase  the  panic  and  confusion 
by  giving  the  frightened  audience  a  view  of  the  fire  on 
the  stage. 

Corrugated-iron  curtains  are  better  in  this  respect. 
They  should  be  accurately  guided  at  both  ends  and 


?  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

should  travel  easily  in  proper  vertical  metal  grooves 
placed  on  both  sides  of  the  proscenium-opening,  and 
well  fastened  to  the  brick  wall,  otherwise  they  are 
liable  to  stick  fast  at  the  moment  when  wanted.  Such 
iron  sliding-curtains  have  not,  in  practice,  proved 
themselves  always  reliable.  It  is  important  that  the 
apparatus  for  raising  or  lowering  the  fire-curtain 
should  be  on  the  stage,  and  not  in  the  rigging-loft,  as 
was  the  case  in  the  Vienna  Ring  Theatre,  because  this 
point  may  be  beyond  reach  soon  after  the  outbreak  of 
a  fire  on  the  stage.  Unless  built  very  strong,  iron 
curtains  are  liable  to  buckle  and  warp,  and  do  not 
resist  a  strong  pressure  due  to  the  expansion  of  the  air 
by  the  heat  in  case  of  fire.  They  should  fit  tightly, 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  smoke,  and  should  be  strong 
enough  to  sustain  a  pressure  for  at  least  ten  minutes, 
to  give  the  audience  time  to  escape.  If  they  are  not 
protected  from  above  by  automatic  sprinkling  appa- 
ratus, or  a  series  of  perforated  pipes  connected  with 
the  supply-pipes  or  roof-tanks,  so  as  to  allow  a  sheet 
of  water  to  run  down  along  the  curtain,  they  may 
become  red-hot  during  a  fierce  fire  and  thus  endanger 
the  spectators. 

On  the  whole,  thick  woven  asbestos  fire-proof  cur- 
tains are  lighter  and  more  easily  handled  than  iron 
curtains,  and  prove  well  adapted  to  check  the  spread 
of  flames  and  to  keep  back  the  smoke,  at  least  suffi- 
ciently long  to  permit  the  complete  emptying  of  the 
theatre.  The  asbestos  curtain  should  travel  in  grooves 
and  should  fit  the  proscenium-opening  as  closely  as 
possible. 

Whatever  kind   of  fire-proof  curtain  is  chosen,   it 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  77 

should  not  merely  be  used  in  case  of  an  emergency, 
but  nightly,  and  it  should  be  raised  a  few  minutes 
before  the  beginning  of,  and  lowered  immediately 
after,  the  performance. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  as  a  further  protection  of  the 
proscenium-opening,  to  provide  it  with  a  2^-inch  per- 
forated copper  pipe,  fed  from  the  sprinkler  tank  by 
means  of  shut-off  valves  operated  from  the  prompter's 
side  of  the  stage,  the  descending  stream  of  water 
forming,  when  set  in  operation,  an  efficient  water- 
curtain. 

Stage  Ventilator. 

Every  theatre  stage  should  be  provided  in  its  roof 
with  one  or  more  large  metal  flues  or  ventilators,  or 
with  ventilating  sliding  skylights,  operated  by  means 
of  ropes  and  counterweights  controlled  at  the  level  of 
the  stage,  or  arranged  to  work  automatically  by  the 
burning  of  a  hemp  cord  in  case  of  a  stage  fire.  The 
object  of  this  ventilator  is  to  provide  an  outlet  and 
ready  means  of  escape  for  the  thick  smoke  and  the  fire- 
gases.  Such  a  ventilator  would  also  act  as  a  means  of 
increasing  the  draught  and  spread  of  the  fire,  and  on 
this  account  it  has  been  objected  to  by  many  who  were 
evidently  more  concerned  with  the  saving  of  the 
building  from  destruction  than  with  the  saving  of  life. 
But,  human  life  being  of  greater  value  than  property, 
the  objection  raised  is  evidently  of  little  importance, 
considering  the  fact  that  the  ventilator  acts  as  a 
powerful  means  of  removing  the  smoke.  As  frequent 
theatre  catastrophes  have  sufficiently  demonstrated, 
the  smoke  is  a  more  deadly  agent  than  fire,  and  con- 


?8  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

stitutes  the  chief  danger  to  the  audience.  Incredible 
as  it  may  sound,  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that,  on  the 
average,  only  five  minutes  elapse  between  the  appear- 
ance of  fire  in  front  of  the  proscenium-opening  and 
the  total  extinction  of  human  life  by  smoke  and 
fire  gases.  This  worst  of  all  foes,  smoke,  must  be 
kept  from  the  audience  by  all  known  means. 

The  two  appliances,  a  fire-proof  curtain  and  a  stage 
ventilator,  act  combined  as  the  most  important  means 
of  protection  to  the  audience  in  case  of  a  theatre  fire. 
Where  these  are  installed  it  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
absolutely  necessary  to  provide  safe  means  of  retreat 
for  the  stage-hands  employed  in  the  rigging-loft  and 
in  the  fly-galleries. 

In  Boston  the  Building  Law  requires  that  the  com- 
bined area  of  the  stage  ventilators  be  equal  to  one-tenth 
the  area  of  the  stage  floor,  and  each  ventilator  is  to  have 
a  counterbalanced  valve,  so  as  to  open  automatically, 
the  valve  being  kept  closed  ordinarily  by  a  cord  of 
combustible  material,  run  down  to  the  prompter's 
desk. 

The  New  York  Building  Law  requires  metal  sliding 
skylights  in  the  stage  roof,  of  a  combined  area  equal 
to  at  least  one-eighth  the  area  of  the  stage.  These 
skylights  are  to  be  fitted  with  sliding  sashes,  glazed 
with  double-thick  glass,  not  exceeding  one-eighth  inch 
thick.  Each  pane  is  to  measure  at  least  300  square 
inches.  The  skylights  are  to  be  so  constructed  as  to 
open  instantly  on  the  burning  or  cutting  of  a  hempen 
cord,  ordinarily  arranged  to  keep  the  skylight  closed. 
A  very  ingenious  apparatus  for  stage  ventilation  was 
fitted  up  some  years  ago  in  a  Chicago  theatre.  The 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  79 

proscenium-wall  was  made  fire-proof,  and  all  openings 
in  it  were  stopped  by  fire-resisting  doors  provided  with 
springs  to  keep  them  closed.  Over  the  stage  an  exit 
for  smoke  is  provided,  consisting  of  a  boiler-iron  flue, 
8  feet  in  diameter  and  30  feet  high.  In  this  flue  is  a 
valve  made  of  a  wooden  frame  covered  with  canvas, 
which  is  kept  closed  by  a  balance  weight.  A  wire- 
cable  connection  is  carried  down  from  the  valve  to  each 
side  of  the  stage,  and  there  are  other  cables  carried  to 
points  in  the  auditorium  under  control  of  the  ushers. 
By  pulling  any  of  these  cables  the  valve  is  opened, 
while  a  very  simple  and  ingenious  contrivance  closes 
simultaneously  the  ventilating  outlet  over  the  audience 
chandelier,  thus  reversing  the  usual  movement  of  air 
from  the  stage  to  the  auditorium  ventilator.  Should 
the  cable  not  be  worked  in  time,  the  valve  being  of 
canvas  is  readily  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  smoke 
outlet  in  the  stage  roof  is  thereby  opened.  The 
same  contrivance  may  at  ordinary  times  be  used  for 
the  ventilation  of  the  stage,  and  during  performances 
it  should  be  opened  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  the 
powder  smoke  incident  to  fireworks  or  the  firing  of 
guns. 

Fire-proof  Treatment  of  Stage  Scenery. 

The  usual  stage  scenery  and  scenic  paraphernalia 
constitute  a  conglomeration  of  highly  dried-up  wood- 
work, a  perfect  labyrinth  of  ropes,  and  a  vast  quantity 
•of  gauze  borders  and  hanging  drapery.  This  mass  of 
highly  combustible  and  easily  inflammable  material 
forms  a  constant  danger  and  menace  to  the  stage, 


8O  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

particularly  when   brought   in   close  vicinity  to   gas- 
lights. 

It  should  be  the  aim  to  make  the  various  parts  of 
the  stage  scenery,  such  as  the  wings,  the  borders,  the 
drop-scenes,  and  the  set-pieces,  as  fire-resisting  as 
possible.  The  substitution  of  light  iron  framework  in 
place  of  wood  for  attaching  the  painted  canvas  is 
desirable.  Where  wooden  frames  are  used  they  should 
be  coated  with  fire-proof  paint. 

All  scenery,  draperies,  and  furniture  should  be 
rendered  non-inflammable  by  chemical  treatment. 
The  treatment,  to  remain  effective,  should  be  renewed 
periodically.  This  is  easily  accomplished  where  a 
theatre  is  used  by  the  same  company  during  the  entire 
season,  but  is  difficult  to  insist  upon  where  different 
travelling  companies  occupy  the  theatre  in  succession. 
The  fire-proof  treatment  of  scenery  is  required  in  the 
New  York  theatre  law,  but  practically  the  law  is  a  dead 
letter. 

The  woodwork  constituting  the  floor  of  the  stage 
proper  and  the  traps  in  the  under-stage  should  be 
rendered  uninflammable  by  chemical  treatment. 

All  scenery  for  large  theatres  should  be  stored  in  a 
separate  fire-proof  scene-dock,  forming  an  annex  to  the 
theatre  building. 

Stage  Construction  and  Stage  Machinery. 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  stage  construction 
and  machinery  of  the  majority  of  theatres  is  antiquated, 
and  that  the  system  followed  from  time  immemorial 
is  susceptible  of  much  improvement.  In  fact,  what 
is  wanted  is  a  radical  improvement  and  innovation, 


TltEiR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION-  i 

tending  to  render  this  part  of  the  building  much  more 
secure,  and  at  the  same  time  more  convenient  in  man- 
agement. 

In  a  paper  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  on 
"  Scenic  Illusions  and  Stage  Appliances,"  Mr.  Percy 
Fitzgerald,  F.S.A.,  relates  that  "  for  the  new  Paris 
Opera-House,  built  by  Garnier,  a  novel  plan  of  stage 
construction  was  offered  and  seriously  entertained. 
This  was  to  divide  the  whole  stage  into  small  plat- 
forms, each  supported  on  pistons  moving  up  and  down 
in  hydraulic  presses.  A  lever,  put  in  motion  by  the 
stage-manager,  would  thus  elevate  or  depress  any  sec- 
tion of  the  stage  to  the  height  or  depth  required." 
He  continues  by  saying:  "  This  was  ingenious,  and  it 
was  elaborated  with  care  and  nearly  adopted,  but  the 
objections  were  insuperable.  The  space  below  the 
stage  was  lost,  being  rilled  with  pumps  and  apparatus; 
there  were  nearly  a  hundred  pistons,  but  the  real 
danger  was  the  almost  certainty  of  some  part  of  the 
machinery  getting  out  of  order."  He  adds  that  "  the 
system  was  actually  adopted  at  the  new  Vaudeville, 
but  never  came  into  use." 

The  system  rejected  for  the  Paris  Opera-House 
has  since  then  been  introduced  into  a  number  of 
smaller  theatres,  with  absolute  success.  Its  great 
advantage  consists  in  reducing  the  risk  of  fire,  by  sub- 
stituting simple  iron  construction,  iron  supports,  and 
iron  machinery  for  the  innumerable  wooden  traps  under 
the  stage,  and  by  replacing  the  inflammable  canvas 
and  gauze  scenery  stretched  on  wooden  frames  by 
scenic  decorations  painted  on  sheet  iron,  held  in  light 
iron  frames.  Woodwork  is  used  only  for  the  stage 


&2  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

platforms,  but  not  for  their  support.  This  is  the  new 
system  of  the  "  Asphaleia  "  Society  of  Vienna.  It 
has  been  used  on  the  stages  of  the  new  theatres  at 
Buda-Pesth  and  at  Halle,  and  also  partially  in  a  Berlin 
theatre.  Independent  of  this  system,  several  other 
theatres  have  adopted  iron  in  place  of  wood  for  con- 
struction, and  steel  wires  in  place  of  hemp  ropes  for 
hoisting  apparatus;  for  instance,  the  new  theatre  in 
Rouen,  France;  the  new  Hofburg  Theatre  in  Vienna, 
and  the  Royal  Theatre  in  Edinburgh. 

The  Buda-Pesth  Theatre  is  considered  to  be  one  of 
the  most  scientifically  and  perfectly  equipped  theatres 
in  existence.  Its  whole  stage  floor  is  divided  into 
many  traps  of  different  size  and  shape,  some  circular 
and  some  oblong,  which  are  operated  by  pistons 
worked  by  hydraulic  power.  By  touching  a  lever  any 
section  can  be  raised,  lowered,  or  inclined,  and  thus 
the  stage  may  be  transformed  into  terraces  or  gradual 
inclines,  instead  of  the  usual  method,  consisting  in 
building  up  such  scenery  on  the  stage.  The  rigging- 
loft  is  constructed  entirely  in  iron.  The  scenery  of 
the  "  Asphaleia  "  system  is  equally  novel.  There  are 
no  flat  drop-scenes  and  no  side-scenes  or  coulisses,  and 
borders  are  done  away  with.  The  whole  stage  forms 
a  clean  open  space.  In  this  is  hung  from  above  a  large 
continuous  curtain,  or"  horizon,"  as  it  is  called,  open 
toward  the  front  and  forming  three  sides.  This  is 
painted  so  as  to  represent  different  sky  effects,  and 
the  horizon  may  be  moved,  and  by  the  use  of  proper 
light  the  scene  is  readily  changed.  The  movements 
of  the  horizon  are  also  controlled  under  the  stage  by 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  83 

means  of  hydraulic  machinery.     The  scenes  are  repre- 
sented by  detached  pieces. 

Apart  from  the  novelty  of  the  scenic  effect,  this 
new  system  is  highly  commendable,  because  it  elimi- 
nates the  chief  elements  of  danger  from  fire  in  thea- 
tres, and  also  because  it  replaces  hand  labor  in  the 
shifting  of  scenery  and  rearrangement  of  the  stage  by 
a  scientifically  constructed  mechanical  power-system. 

Heating. 

The  heating  of  a  theatre  should  always  be  done  by 
a  centralized  system,  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity 
of  having  many  fires  to  look  after,  and  of  having  a 
number  of  smoke-flues,  each  of  which  constitutes 
a  danger.  Heating  by  warm-air  furnaces  is  only 
adapted  for  very  small  theatres,  and  even  in  these  it 
is  objectionable  on  account  of  danger  from  fire,  and 
because  it  rapidly  desiccates  woodwork  and  scenery, 
and  renders  the  same  still  more  easily  inflammable. 
The  choice  of  the  system  for  larger  buildings  lies 
between  warming  by  steam  and  by  hot  water.  Which- 
ever system  may  be  preferred,  it  is  essential  that  the 
heating  of  the  auditorium  be  accomplished  largely  by 
the  indirect  method,  which  consists  in  the  introduction 
of  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  suitably  warmed  at 
heating  stacks,  placed  at  the  basement  or  cellar  ceiling. 
The  indirect-heating  system  may  be  supplemented  by 
a  few  direct  steam-radiators  placed  in  wall  niches  near 
the  exits,  where  there  is  frequently  an  unpleasant 
draught  from  the  rush  of  cold  air  from  outdoors. 

The  stage  is  generally  heated  by  direct-heating  coils 
or  radiators,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 


84  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

stage  building  at  such  a  temperature,  even  when  there 
are  no  performances,  as  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
water  in  the  fire  stand-pipes,  and  in  the  automatic- 
sprinkler  system. 

The  dressing-rooms,  toilet-rooms,  offices,  stairs, 
corridors,  foyers,  and  lobbies  are  also  heated  by 
means  of  direct  radiators. 

The  steam-boiler  must  never  be  placed  directly 
under  the  auditorium  or  the  stage.  It  is  desirable  to 
place  it  in  a  separate  and  detached  building,  or,  at 
least,  to  remove  it  to  a  vault  under  the  sidewalk.  The 
boiler  should  be  of  the  sectional  safety  type.  Special 
care  is,  of  course,  required  in  the  construction  of  the 
boiler-flue.  The  boiler-rocrm  should  be  enclosed  by 
brick  walls,  the  ceiling  should  be  fireproofed,  and  all 
doorways  leading  to  the  boiler-room  should  be  of  iron, 
or,  better,  double  tin  lined  wooden  doors.  If  the 
boiler-room  is  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers, 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  fusible  solder-joint 
arranged  so  as  to  stand  a  higher  temperature  without 
opening.  All  steam-pipes  must  be  kept  from  direct 
contact  with  any  woodwork,  and  they  should  be  encased 
with  double  thimbles  where  they  pass  through  floors, 
to  avoid  the  danger  of  wood  becoming  charred  and 
ignited. 

Floor  registers  are  objectionable,  and  are  not  per- 
mitted by  the  New  York  theatre  law.  Heating-coils 
or  radiators  should  not  be  placed  in  any  aisles,  passages, 
or  corridors  where  they  would  constitute  an  obstruc- 
tion, but  should  be  placed  in  recesses  or  niches. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AMD   PREVENTION.  85 

Lighting. 

The  lighting  arrangements  of  theatres,  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  stage  and  the  stage  scenery,  require 
the  most  thoughtful  consideration  and  the  greatest 
care  in  execution  and  arrangement,  as  they  form  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  theatre  fires.  The  days  when 
theatres  were  illuminated  by  candles  or  oil-lamps  are 
happily  past.  Gas-light,  which  is  infinitely  safer  than 
either  method,  has  long  ago  taken  their  place,  and  is 
now  as  rapidly  being  replaced  by  the  still  safer,  and 
therefore  much  to  be  preferred,  incandescent  electric 
light. 

In  the  auditorium  gas-lights  have  proved  objection- 
able on  account  of  the  immense  heat  and  vitiated 
atmosphere  which  they  create.  On  the  stage,  all 
open  flames  used  in  the  lighting  up  of  the  wings  and 
borders,  as  well  as  the  footlights,  were  a  constant 
menace  to  the  highly  inflammable  scenery  and  to  the 
light  costumes  of  the  dancers.  It  is  therefore  safe  to 
assert  that,  at  least  for  the  two  principal  parts  of  a 
theatre  building,  electric-lighting  has  many  advantages 
over  gas-light.  The  introduction  of  the  incandescent 
glow-lamp  for  the  lighting  of  the  stage  and  scenery 
increases  the  safety  of  a  theatre-building  perhaps  more 
than  any  other  safety  appliance.  Of  course  it  is 
necessary  that  the  wiring  should  be  done  in  the  best 
manner,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  fire  under- 
writers. 

But  the  electric  current  is  not  always  available,  and 
the  installation  of  a  special  electric  plant  may,  in  some 
cases,  particularly  for  smaller  theatre  enterprises, 


S6  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

prove  too  great  an  expense.  Therefore,  where  the 
theatre  depends  on  the  use  of  gas,  the  gas-piping 
should  be  arranged  with  extreme  care,  and  the  man- 
agement of  all  gas-lights  should  be  under  the  control 
of  a  specially  trained  employe.  All  gas-pipes  should 
be  of  wrought  iron,  and  no  lead  or  other  pipes  should 
be  permitted.  The  piping  must  be  put  together  in  a 
proper  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  must  be  abso- 
lutely gas-tight  under  a  severe  pressure  test.  The 
joints  of  flexible  india-rubber  gas-pipe  for  the  border 
and  bunch  lights  and  for  stage  chandeliers  must  be 
carefully  watched,  and  the  rubber  tubing  should  be 
strong  steam  hose  of  best  quality  rubber,  and  pro- 
tected from  injury  by  being  surrounded  with  spiral 
wire. 

The  gas-meters  should  be  placed  in  well-ventilated 
brick  vaults,  closed  with  fire-proof  doors.  There  should 
be  at  least  two  distinct  supply  mains,  one  for  the 
stage  and  the  main  lights  in  the  auditorium,  and 
another  for  the  staircases,  corridors,  lobbies,  the 
entrances  and  exits,  and  the  rear  portion  of  the  audi- 
torium. This  second  line  may  also  be  used  for  supply- 
ing the  dressing-rooms  and  offices  in  the  stage  building, 
although  a  third  separate  gas-main  for  these  would  be 
still  better.  Each  main  should  be  controlled  by  a 
shut-off  valve,  located  in  the  sidewalk  and  accessible 
from  outdoors,  to  turn  off  the  supply  of  gas  if  not 
required.  The  stage  gas-main  should  lead  to  a  large 
gas-table,  or  distributor,  located  on  the  prompter's 
side  of  the  stage,  and  at  this  table  there  should  be  a 
series  of  shut-offs,  each  with  by-pass  to  control, 
separately  and  independently,  the  lights  in  the  audi- 


ttiEIR   CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  8? 

torium,  the  central  chandelier,  the  footlights,  the 
wing-lights,  the  border-lights,  the  ground-lights,  the 
stage  chandelier,  and  the  bunch-lights.  The  lights  in 
the  stairs,  passages,  lobbies,  should  be  controlled  only 
by  a  shut-off  located  in  the  lobby. 

All  gas  and  electric  lights  surrounded  with  glass 
should  have  fastened  underneath  a  fine-mesh  wire 
netting.  All  open  gas-flames  must  be  protected  by 
wire  cages  or  guards,  which  should  be  strongly 
fastened  to  the  gas-brackets.  The  wire  cages  should 
be  of  sufficiently  large  diameter  (at  least  ten  inches) 
so  that  the  wire  may  never  become  heated  to  more 
than  250°  F.  All  side-lights  should  have  stiff  brackets. 
Swinging  or  jointed  brackets  should  not  be  permitted. 
All  fixtures  should  have  strong  pin  stops.  It  is  of 
advantage  to  have  all  gas-brackets  in  foyers,  halls,  and 
stairs  so  arranged  as  to  have  detachable  keys,  so  that 
the  lights  cannot  under  any  circumstances  be  tampered 
with.  All  these  lights  should  be  protected  against 
draught  by  glass  globes,  but  on  the  stage  and  in  the 
dressing-rooms  all  open  flames  should  have  wire  cages. 

All  open  flames  should  also  be  kept  safely  away 
from  woodwork.  The  footlights  should  have  a  wire 
network,  and  should  be  protected  with  a  strong  wire 
guard,  two  feet  distant  from  the  footlights,  to  prevent 
actors  from  coming  too  near  to  the  lights.  The  trough 
for  the  footlights  should  be  formed  of  fire-proof 
material.  All  border-lights  should  be  suspended  by 
wire  ropes.  The  lights  in  the  wings  should  not  come 
lower  than  five  feet  above  the  stage  level. 

The  central  chandelier  in  the  auditorium,  the  foot- 
lights, and  the  border-lights,  as  well  as  all  other  rows 


88  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

of  gas-lights,  should  be  lighted  with  electric  flash- 
lighting,  which  is  a  safer  method  than  the  lighting  up 
by  means  of  spirit-lamps  on  poles,  or  by  other  open 
lights.  Sun-burners  in  the  auditorium  ceiling  are 
preferable  to  chandeliers,  and  are  usually  arranged  so 
as  to  assist  in  the  ventilation  of  the  main  body  of  the 
theatre.  The  central  lustre  is  hurtful  to  the  eyes  and 
in  the  way  of  the  sight-line  of  the  upper  gallery,  and 
its  entire  abolishment  is  much  to  be  desired.  All 
ducts  used  for  carrying  heated  air  from  gas-lights 
should  be  made  double,  and  constructed  of  metal  with 
intervening  spaces.  The  ceiling  ventilators  in  the 
auditorium  should  have  valves  arranged  in  such  a  way 
that  they  may  be  shut  off  to  prevent  smoke  in  case  of 
a  fire  being  rapidly  drawn  up  towards  and  through 
them,  before  the  audience  has  departed. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  plenty  of  gas-light  in 
all  actors'  dressing-rooms,  otherwise  the  actors  may 
feel  tempted  to  use  candles  in  "  making  up." 

Where  lime  or  calcium  light  is  used  on  the  stage 
for  special  illuminations  it  should  be  most  carefully 
handled  and  manipulated. 

Every  theatre  should,  in  addition  to  the  gas  or 
electric  light,  have  for  the  sake  of  safety  an  auxiliary 
system  of  lighting  the  passages,  corridors,  and  all  stair- 
ways and  exits  by  means  of  oil-lamps  or  candle  lan- 
terns, so  that  in  case  the  gas  is  turned  off,  as  happened 
in  the  Vienna  Ring  Theatre  and  the  Brooklyn  Theatre 
fires,  or  in  case  the  electric-light  fails,  the  exits  and 
stairways  are  not  left  in  total  darkness.  These  oil  or 
candle  lanterns  should  be  placed  out  of  the  way,  in 
niches  in  the  walls,  closed  by  glass  doors,  so  they 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  89 

cannot  be  extinguished  by  a  draught  of  air  or  by 
smoke.  It  is  advisable  to  provide  the  lamp  niches 
with  fresh-air  supply  and  a  vent-flue  carried  outdoors. 
The  oil  burned  in  these  lamps,  as  well  as  in  those  used 
on  the  stage  in  the  presentation  of  plays,  should  be 
vegetable  or  colza  oil,  or  sperm  or  whale  oil,  and  not 
the  mineral  oil  or  kerosene.  All  oil  should  be  stored 
in  fire-proof  vaults,  and  the  trimming  and  filling  of  the 
lamps  should  only  be  permitted  in  daytime.  The  oil 
lamps  at  exits  should  be  provided  with  red  and  white 
glass,  so  as  to  be  plainly  distinguished.  The  auxil- 
iary lights  should  be  kept  lighted  from  the  time  the 
theatre  is  open  until  the  theatre  and  stage  are  emptied. 
The  New  York  law  requires  all  parts  of  the  building 
devoted  to  the  public,  all  outlets  leading  to  the  street, 
including  the  open  courts  and  corridors,  to  be  lighted 
during  each  performance,  and  to  be  left  lighted  until 
the  whole  audience  has  departed.  It  also  specifies 
the  use  of  at  least  two  or  more  oil-lamps  on  each 
side  of  the  auditorium  in  each  tier,  the  same  to  be 
placed  on  fixed  brackets  about  seven  feet  high,  to  be 
filled  with  whale  or  lard  oil,  or  else  candles. 

Lightning-rods. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  find  on  record  a  single  case 
of  the  burning  or  destruction  of  a  theatre  from  being 
set  on  fire  by  lightning,*  but  there  are  instances  of 

*  Soon  after  writing  the  above,  I  received  information  from  Mr. 
Ernest  E.  A.  Woodrow,  of  the  burning  of  the  Royal  County  Theatre 
at  Reading,  England,  on  the  last  Saturday  in  August,  1894,  in  the 
morning,  which  fire  was  said  to  be  caused  by  lightning.  I  quote 
from  a  copy  of  the  Reading  Observer  of  Sept.  I,  1894,  the  fol- 


90  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

theatre  buildings  having  been  struck.  On  March  20, 
1784,  lightning  struck  the  theatre  at  Mantua,  in  Italy, 
during  a  performance,  at  which  about  400  spectators 
were  present.  Of  these,  two  were  killed  and  ten 
severely  injured.  On  the  26th  of  July,  1759,  the 
theatre  at  Feltre,  in  Italy,  was  struck  by  lightning, 
and  Arago  relates  that  many  in  the  audience  were 
killed  or  injured,  and  that  the  lights  were  extinguished 
by  the  electrical  shock.  In  both  cases  the  building 
did  not  take  fire.  There  is  always,  in  the  event  of  a 
theatre  being  struck  by  lightning  during  a  perform- 
ance, the  danger  of  a  serious  panic.  It,  therefore, 
seems  proper  and  wise  to  provide  theatre  buildings 
with  the  protection  which  a  well-constructed  system 
of  lightning-rods  affords.  The  Frankfort-on-Main 
Opera-House  is  protected  by  thirteen  lightning-rods, 
subjected  to  inspection  annually. 

Ventilation  and  Sanitation. 

The  efficient  ventilation  of  the  auditorium,  of  the 
stage,  of  the  actors'  and  supers'  dressing-rooms,  and 
of  the  toilet-rooms;  a  thorough  system  of  cleanliness 
and  removal  of  dirt  and  rubbish;  and,  finally,  a  safe 
and  well-arranged  system  of  drainage  and  plumbing — 
are  important  requirements,  constituting  together  the 
question  of  "  Theatre  Hygiene,"  but  they  have  very 
little  direct  bearing  on  the  subject  of  fire-prevention 

lowing:  "There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  origin  of  the  fire  was 
due  to  the  building  being  struck  by  lightning.  .  .  .  The  lightning 
struck  the  top  of  the  theatre  near  the  ventilator  over  the  gallery,  and 
almost  immediately  the  building  was  in  flames."  The  theatre  was 
completely  wrecked  by  the  fire. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  £1 

and  fire-protection  in  theatres,  and  will,  therefore,  not 
be  discussed  here  in  detail. 

The  Boston  Building  Law  wisely  prescribes  that 
every  theatre  should  have  a  system  of  ventilation  so 
contrived  as  to  provide  fifty  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per 
minute,  or  three  thousand  cubic  feet  per  hour,  for  each 
occupant,  and  for  each  light  other  than  electric  light. 

The  old-fashioned  central  chandelier,  or  lustre, 
which  constituted  a  chief  feature  in  the  older  theatres, 
and  which  when  gas-light  came  into  use  was  utilized 
to  assist  in  the  ventilation  of  the  auditorium,  is  happily 
going  out  of  fashion.  In  more  than  one  instance  it 
carried  death  and  destruction,  by  creating  during  afire 
a  strong  current  of  air  from  the  stage  into  the  audi- 
torium, thus  leading  the  smoke  and  fire  gases  to  the 
upper  galleries  and  suffocating  the  people.  Serious 
accidents  have  also  occurred  through  the  falling  of  the 
chandelier  during  a  performance. 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  being  opposed  to 
ceiling  ventilation  in  the  auditorium.  This  is  neces- 
sary, even  in  the  case  of  theatres  lighted  with  elec- 
tricity. But  a  judicious  arrangement  of  the  ventilators 
and  registers  is  required.  The  ventilator  over  the 
stage,  when  fully  opened,  should  be  larger  than  the 
combined  area  of  the  ventilators  in  the  auditorium 
ceiling.  This,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  stage 
ventilator  is  nearly  always  higher  than  the  one  for  the 
audience,  would  assure  a  movement  of  air  away  from 
the  auditorium  towards  the  stage.  To  make  quite 
sure  of  this,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  vent  registers 
in  the  ceiling  of  the  auditorium  controlled  from  the 
stage,  so  that  in  case  a  fire  breaks  out  on  the  stage, 


92  THEATRE  FIRES  AND  PANICS: 

the  person  whose  duty  it  is  to  lower  the  fire-proof  cur- 
tain, and  to  open  the  stage-roof  ventilators,  will  also 
simultaneously  close  the  vent  register  in  the  auditorium 
ceiling.  The  smoke  and  fire  gases  will  thereby  be 
effectively  prevented  from  passing  over  into  the 
auditorium.  In  any  case,  the  ventilation  of  the  stage 
and  the  auditorium  should  be  arranged  entirely  sep- 
arate. 

Fire-service  and  Fire-extinguishing  Appliances. 

A  theatre  should  have  an  abundant  and  never-failing 
supply  of  water  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes,  and 
there  should  be  plenty  of  fire-extinguishing  appliances 
always  kept  in  readiness  and  free  from  encumbrances. 

First,  as  regards  the  main  in  front  of  the  theatre: 
this  should  be,  if  possible,  an  eight  or  ten  inch  main, 
and  where  the  city  water  system  has  different  pressure 
zones,  the  main  should  be  connected  with  the  high- 
pressure  service. 

There  should  be,  for  outside  protection,  several 
large  post  hydrants  distributed  around  the  sides  of  the 
theatres. 

The  size  of  the  service  main  supplying  the  theatre 
should  be  at  least  six  inches,  if  attainable,  and  four 
inches  should  be  the  minimum  size.  It  is  still  better 
to  run  two  mains  into  the  building  from  opposite  streets 
and  to  cross-connect  the  same  in  the  building  so  as 
to  be  sure  of  an  ample  supply  at  all  times. 

Where  water-meters  are  required  on  these  services, 
there  should  be  a  sealed  by-pass  gate-valve,  to  be 
opened  only  in  case  of  fire,  as  it  is  unnecessary  to 
meter  the  water  used  for  extinguishing  the  flames. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  93 

There  are  some  cities  in  which  the  pressure  in  the 
city  mains  is  at  all  times  ample  for  fire  purposes,  and 
where  the  stream  from  fire-nozzles  attached  to  stand 
pipes,  fed  from  direct  pressure,  would  reach  above  the 
highest  part  of  a  theatre  building.  In  other  cities, 
where  the  Holly  system  of  water- works  is  arranged, 
the  ordinary  pressure  of  about  35  to  40  Ibs.  in  the 
street  mains  is  increased  in  case  of  a  fire,  as  soon  as 
the  fire-alarm  has  reached  the  pumping-station,  to  100 
Ibs.  pressure. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  pressure  in 
the  street  mains,  suitable  for  domestic  purposes,  is 
insufficient  for  fire  protection,  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  supply  the  fire-valves  and  the  sprinklers  in  the 
theatre  either  from  fire-pumps,  or  from  elevated  open 
tanks,  or,  finally,  from  closed  tanks  with  compressed 
air.  Even  the  pressure  obtained  from  elevated  tanks 
is  not  sufficient  to  produce  effective  fire-streams, 
except  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  theatre. 

It  is  usual  in  theatres  to  operate  the  sprinkler 
system  from  roof  tanks,  and  the  fire-valves  under 
pressure  from  a  large  fire-pump,  and  to  omit  any  con- 
nection between  the  fire  stand-pipes  and  the  roof 
tanks. 

Every  theatre  should,  therefore,  be  fitted  up  with 
one  or  several  powerful  fire-pumps,  either  of  the  rotary 
type  or  of  the  direct-acting  plunger  type.  The 
best  type  of  direct-acting  pump,  the  "  Underwriter  " 
standard  fire-pump,  should  be  selected.  For  small 
theatres  the  pump  should  have  a  capacity  of  500 
gallons  per  minute,  equivalent  to  two  fire-streams; 
medium-sized  theatres  require  a  four-stream  pump, 


94  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

which  is  able  to  throw  1000  gallons  per  minute,  while 
large  theatres  should  have  either  the  six-stream  pump 
or  two  fire-pumps  of  smaller  size.  These  pumps  should 
ordinarily  draw  their  supply  from  a  large  suction  or  re- 
serve tank  located  in  the  basement  of  the  theatre,  and 
supplied  from  the  street  mains,  but  they  should  be  so 
connected  as  to  be  able  to  draw  directly  from  the  street 
main  in  case  of  fire.  The  fire-pump  should  also  be 
used  to  feed  the  open  roof  tanks  for  the  sprinkler  sys- 
tem. This  pump  should  be  kept  in  working  order,  and 
tested  at  least  once  a  week.  During  performances, 
steam  under  high  pressure  (at  least  50  Ibs.  per  sq. 
in.)  should  always  be  kept  on  the  pump  to  have  it 
ready  for  instant  service. 

There  should  be.  numerous  fire-stand-pipes  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  theatre,  at  least  one  on  each 
side  of  the  proscenium-opening  on  the  stage,  at  least 
one  on  each  side  in  the  auditorium,  one  in  the  corridor 
near  the  stage  dressing-rooms,  one  in  the  property- 
room,  one  in  the  carpenter's  shop,  and  others  as  may 
be  required.  Each  stand-pipe  should  have  outlets  in 
each  tier  of  the  auditorium,  and  likewise  in  the  under- 
stage,  on  the  stage,  in  the  fly-galleries,  and  in  the 
rigging-loft.  Each  outlet  should  be  provided  with  a 
standard  fire-valve,  and  with  50  feet  of  fire-hose  with 
hose-coupling  and  fire-nozzle  always  attached  to  the 
valve. 

The  hose  should  be  of  a  suitable  and  approved  qual- 
ity, either  rubber-lined  cotton  or  unlined  linen  hose, 
and  both  kinds  should  be  able  to  stand  a  pressure  of 
several  hundred  pounds  per  square  inch  without  leak- 
ing or  bursting,  and  should  be  tested  before  accept- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  95 

ance.  Some  of  the  unlined  hose  sold  in  the  market 
leaks  like  a  sieve,  and  even  much  of  the  rubber-lined 
hose  as  used  for  inside  fire  protection  is  of  poor  quality 
and  utterly  unfit  for  use.  I  saw  the  story  related, 
though  I  cannot  now  recall  where,  that  a  dealer  in 
fire-hose  once  asked  a  purchaser  whether  he  wanted 
the  hose  for  actual  use,  or  merely  "  to  hang  up  " 
to  satisfy  the  Underwriters'  inspectors.  Whether 
the  story  be  true  or  not,  it  points  out  a  moral  and 
lesson  which  those  who  fit  up  theatres  should  bear  in 
mind  when  purchasing  fire-hose. 

The  hose  is  ordinarily  kept  on  hose-reels,  but  it  is 
better  to  fold  it  up  in  swinging  hose-racks,  or  to  hang 
it  up  on  saddles,  hooks,  or  pegs  in  such  a  way  that  if 
taken  out  for  service  it  does  not  twist  or  kink.  There 
should  be  at  each  fire-valve  suitable  hose  spanners. 
All  stand-pipes  should  be  kept  clear  from  obstruction, 
and  the  access  to  them  should  not  be  blocked.  The 
fire-pump  should  be  fitted  with  an  automatic  regulator, 
so  that  immediately  when  a  fire-valve  is  opened  the 
pump  is  started  in  action.  An  efficient  substitute  for 
fire-hose  and  play-pipes  consists  in  the  use  of  so-called 
"  Monitor  "  nozzles,  attached  directly  to  the  stand- 
pipes,  which  can  be  turned  vertically  as  well  as  hori- 
zontally in  all  directions,  and  are  so  balanced  as  to 
remain  in  position  while  the  stream  plays.  These 
special  fire-nozzles  are  applicable  in  particular  to  the 
protection  of  the  theatre  stage. 

A  separate  and  distinct  system  of  automatic  sprink- 
lers, with  fusible  plugs,  supplied  from  a  fire-tank  on 
the  roof,  and  not  connected  in  any  manner  with  the 
stand-pipes,  should  be  provided.  The  sprinklers 


96  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

should  be  installed  above-and  around  the  proscenium- 
opening,  on  the  ceiling  or  roof  of  the  stage,  under  the 
rigging-loft,  under  the  fly-galleries,  and  under  the 
stage,  at  such  intervals  as  will  protect  every  square 
foot  of  stage.  Sprinklers  should  also  be  installed  in 
the  carpenter  and  paint  shops,  in  the  store-room  and 
property-room,  and  in  the  boiler-room.  It  is  desirable 
to  provide  sprinklers  in  all  dressing-rooms,  and  where 
the  loft  over  the  auditorium  is  used  for  any  purpose 
this  should  also  be  so  protected. 

The  sprinkler  system  should  be  provided  with  one 
or  several  outside  fire-department  connections  to  which 
the  fire-engines  may  be  hitched,  and  with  automatic 
inside  and  outside  fire-alarm.  The  fire-tank  should 
have  a  low-water  alarm  that  will  ring  a  bell  in  the 
pump-room. 

Sometimes  the  stage  is  protected  by  a  perforated- 
pipe  system  in  place  of  the  automatic-sprinkler  system, 
and  the  valves  controlling  the  flow  of  water  to  the 
rows  of  pipes  are  operated  from  the  same  place  on  the 
stage  where  the  fire-curtain,  the  stage  ventilator,  and 
the  auditorium  vent  registers  are  operated. 

In  addition  to  the  fire-valves  and  the  sprinklers, 
each  theatre  should  have  a  number  of  portable  chem- 
ical or  compressed-air  hand  fire-extinguishers,  and  a 
large  number  of  fire-pails  or  buckets.  The  fire-pails 
should  be  hung  on  hooks  or  set  on  shelves,  and  placed 
on  the  stage,  in  the  fly-galleries,  in  the  rigging-loft, 
under  the  stage,  and  on  all  the  tiers  of  the  auditor- 
ium, on  both  sides  of  the  theatre.  Fire-pails  should 
be  painted  a  bright  red  and  marked  "  FOR  FIRE." 
They  should  be  constantly  refilled,  and  must  not  be 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  97 

used  for  other  purposes.  Sometimes  so-called  "  in- 
surance "  or  "  chemical  "  fire-pails  are  used,  which 
contain  a  non-freezing,  fire-extinguishing  solution,  in 
liquid  or  in  powder  form,  and  which  are  protected 
by  tin-foil  against  evaporation. 

On  the  stage  there  should  also  be  large  casks  of 
water,  of  from  forty  to  fifty  gallons  capacity,  to  refill 
the  pails  and  to  form  a  supply  for  hand  force-pumps. 
Moreover,  there  should  be  provided  wet  sponges  or 
swabs  on  long  poles,  wet  blankets,  asbestos  sheets, 
asbestos  gloves,  boxes  of  sand  to  extinguish  burning 
oil,  various  lengths  of  fire-hook  poles,  etc. 

Finally,  there  should  be  on  each  floor  of  the  audi- 
torium, on  each  tier  of  the  stage,  and  in  the  corridors 
dividing  the  stage  proper  and  the  dressing-rooms,  fire- 
axes  with  pick  heads,  axe-brackets,  and  knives  for  the 
use  of  the  firemen  and  the  theatre  employes. 

Steam-jets  or  nozzles  for  extinguishing  fires  may  be 
fitted  up  in  inaccessible  corners  and  in  the  rigging- 
loft,  but  neither  on  the  stage  nor  in  the  auditorium 
should  steam  be  used  as  an  extinguisher,  as  it  would 
tend  to  increase  the  fright  and  confusion  during  a  fire 
or  panic.* 

Life-saving  Appliances. 

When  a  fire  breaks  out  in  a  crowded  theatre  the 
first  thought  should  be  the  safety  of  the  audience  and 
of  the  people  in  the  stage-house,  and  the  saving  of 
property  or  of  the  building  should  be  a  second  con- 
sideration. The  fire-proof  curtain  and  the  stage 

*  See  Chapter  III.  for  further  details. 


98  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

ventilator  may  be  classed  among  the  life-saving  appli- 
ances. We  may  also  consider  as  arrangements  tending 
to  save  life,  the  provision  of  plenty  of  wide  aisles, 
and  of  numerous  fire-proof  stairs  and  exits.  The 
auxiliary  lighting  of  the  latter  may  also  be  considered 
a  necessary  feature  for  the  saving  of  the  audience. 

Special  life-saving  appliances,  such  as  scaling- 
ladders,  extension-ladders,  a  large  jumping-net,  a 
chute  or  flume-escape,  rope  or  pulley  escapes,  smoke- 
respirators,  are  generally  carried  by  the  fire-brigade. 
Some  of  these — for  instance,  the  jumping-net — may 
with  advantage  be  kept  in  readiness  at  each  theatre, 
to  assist  in  saving  life. 

Fire-alarms. 

Every  theatre  must  be  fitted  up  with  a  complete 
fire-alarm  system.  This  should  include  telephonic 
and  telegraphic  connection  with  the  nearest  fire-engine 
station,  and  also  with  the  headquarters  of  the  fire- 
department,  so  that  in  case  of  an  outbreak  of  fire 
the  firemen  may  be  immediately  notified.  In  large 
theatres  it  is  desirable  to  have  other  means  to  indicate 
quickly  the  presence  of  flames.  Thermostats,  or 
heat-indicators,  may  be  suitably  placed  and  distributed 
throughout  the  house,  which  indicate  in  the  manager's 
office  the  presence  of  undue  heat  or  fire  at  any  point. 
The  automatic-sprinkler  system  should  always  be  fitted 
up  with  a  fire-alarm,  which  rings  a  gong  on  the  stage 
or  in  the  office,  and  another  gong  on  the  outside  of 
the  building,  as  soon  as  any  sprinkler  has  been  put  in 
operation.  There  should  be  a  fire-alarm  telegraph, 
connecting  the  manager's  office  with  the  pump  or 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  99 

boiler-room,  so  that  the  engineer  can  be  immediately 
notified,  in  case  of  fire,  to  look  after  the  boilers  and 
the  fire-pump.  In  some  recent  European  theatres  all 
the  doors  leading  to  the  stage  and  the  fire-doors  in 
the  proscenium-wall  are  fitted  with  a  system  of  alarms, 
indicating  in  the  office  when  any  of  the  doors  are  not 
closed.  Such  alarms  must,  of  course,  be  switched  off 
during  the  rehearsals  and  performances,  but  at  all 
other  hours  they  indicate  whether  the  stage  is  com- 
pletely shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building. 

Questions  of  Management. 

There  are  many  points  in  the  management  of  a 
theatre  which  tend,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  increase 
the  safety  of  such  buildings  from  the  danger  of  fire, 
and  which  likewise  affect  the  safety  of  the  theatre- 
going  public.  To  some  of  these  I  shall  make  brief 
reference. 

Strict  discipline  and  order  should  prevail  on  the 
stage.  The  theatre  staff  should  be  called  together 
regularly  for  fire-drills,  and  for  instruction  in  the  use 
of  the  fire-extinguishing  and  life-saving  appliances. 
Each  employe"  should  be  entrusted  to  perform  a  par- 
ticular duty  in  case  of  a  fire. 

There  should  be  at  all  times  a  theatre  watchman, 
and  at  night,  in  particular,  a  special  night-watchman. 
His  duty  should  consist  in  making  frequent  trips,  at 
regular  intervals,  to  all  parts  of  the  building,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  have  his  faithfulness  controlled  and  his 
inspections  recorded  by  an  electric  watchman's  clock. 

No  open  lights  or  open  fires  should  be  allowed  in 
any  room  near  the  stage  or  on  the  latter.  The  rooms 


, 
or      \JF 

IOO  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

for  the  storage  of  theatrical  costumes  should,  at  night, 
be  entered  only  with  safety  lanterns.  The  use  of 
candles  or  oil-lamps  in  the  dressing-rooms,  the  use  of 
wax  or  parlor  matches,  and  likewise  the  smoking  of 
cigars,  cigarettes,  or  pipes  should  be  prohibited. 
Smoking  on  the  stage,  if  required  in  the  scenes  of  a 
performance,  should  be  restricted  as  much  as  possible. 
Candelabras  with  candles  and  oil-lamps,  if  used  in  the 
play,  should  be  handled  with  extreme  care. 

The  practice  of  a  sudden  and  unannounced  darken- 
ing of  the  auditorium,  during  changes  in  stage-setting 
with  raised  curtain,  is  dangerous,  and  may  precipitate 
a  panic. 

Special  care  should  be  observed  and  strict  regula- 
tions issued  regarding  the  use  of  firearms,  the  burn- 
ing of  fireworks,  the  use  of  colored  and  calcium  lights, 
so  frequently  introduced  in  spectacular  plays,  the 
dancing  with  lighted  torches,  or  even  the  representa- 
tion of  actual  fire  scenes  on  the  stage.  The  wads  for 
rifle  or  pistol  shots  should  be  of  calf's  hair  or  asbestos 
wool,  and  not  of  paper. 

Trained  firemen  should  be  in  attendance  on  the  stage 
during  every  performance.  The  firemen  should  be  in 
charge  of  the  appliances  for  the  extinction  of  fires,  and 
should  satisfy  themselves  by  personal  inspection 
shortly  before  each  performance  that  they  are  in  good 
working  order  and  ready  for  instant  use.  The  fire 
stand-pipes  and  valves  should  not  be  obstructed. 
There  should  be  a  penalty  enforced  for  using  fire-pails 
for  other  purposes.  During  performances  the  fire, 
pump  should  be  constantly  kept  under  the  steam 
pressure  required  to  operate  the  same. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  IOI 

The  safety  appliances  should  be  in  charge  of  a 
special  trusted  inspector.  He  should,  if  practicable, 
have  on  the  stage  an  office  or  watch-tower,  from  which, 
like  the  operator  in  a  central-switch  railroad  tower,  he 
can  operate  the  fire-proof  curtain,  the  stage-roof  ven- 
tilators, the  registers  of  the  ventilators  in  the  audi- 
torium ceiling,  the  perforated-pipe  system  forming  a 
water-curtain  at  the  proscenium-opening,  and  the  fire- 
alarm  apparatus.  He  should  also  have  telephone 
communication  with  the  theatre-manager's  office,  with 
the  engine  or  pump  room,  and  with  the  nearest  fire- 
department  station. 

The  fire-proof  treatment  and  impregnation  of  light 
dresses  and  gauze  costumes  should  be  insisted  upon, 
particularly  for  the  ballet-dancers,  and  the  treatment 
should  be  renewed  after  each  washing. 

Besides  the  automatic  alarms  on  the  stage,  in  the 
manager's-room,  and  in  the  engine-room,  a  theatre 
should  be  connected  by  telephone  and  by  fire  tele- 
graph with  the  nearest  fire-station  and  with  the  head- 
quarters of  the  fire-department. 

The  constant  use  of  all  safety  appliances  should  be 
insisted  upon.  At  every  performance  the  fire-curtain 
should  be  lowered  to  insure  its  proper  working  in 
times  of  need. 

Likewise  should  all  theatre  exits  be  thrown  open  and 
used  nightly,  so  as  to  have  the  public  become  familiar 
with  them.  The  oil-lamps  in  corridors  and  staircases 
should  be  lighted  every  night,  and  not  extinguished 
until  the  entire  audience  has  left  the  theatre.  All 
exit  doors  should  be  plainly  marked  in  large  and  dis- 
tinctly legible  letters.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mark  all 


102  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

other  doors,  which  do  not  lead  to  exits,  either  by  the 
words  "  no  exit,"  or  else  to  designate  them  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  recognized,  as  for  instance, 
' '  toilet, "  "buffet, f  f  "  cloak-room, "  "office, " 
"  ladies'  retiring-room,"  etc. 

The  exits  and  staircases  should  be  plainly  shown  on 
clearly  printed  plans  of  the  theatre,  hung  up  in  con- 
spicuous places  in  the  foyers  or  corridors.  The  theatre 
plans  and  the  exits  should  be  printed  on  every  theatre 
programme,  and  in  a  way  so  as  to  be  clearly  legible. 

The  number  of  persons  admitted  to  a  theatre  should 
be  strictly  limited  by  law  according  to  its  seating 
capacity,  and  it  is  better  still  to  license  each  division 
of  the  auditorium  for  a  fixed  number  of  persons. 

No  standing-room  should  be  permitted,  nor  should 
camp-stools  be  used  in  the  aisles.  The  open  courts 
at  the  sides  of  the  theatre  should  not  be  used  for  tem- 
porary storage  of  theatre  trunks  or  stage  scenery,  but 
they,  as  well  as  all  passages,  should  be  kept  clear  from 
all  encumbrances. 

The  utmost  cleanliness  should  be  maintained 
throughout  a  theatre,  not  only  in  the  auditorium,  but 
also  on  the  stage,  in  the  dressing-rooms,  the  toilet- 
rooms,  and  the  places  under  the  stage.  The  daily 
removal  of  all  dirt,  dry  dust,  sweepings,  shavings, 
rubbish,  oily  rags,  and  other  waste  materials  of  all 
kinds  must  be  performed  with  regularity.  Pending 
removal,  oily  rags  or  cotton  waste  should  be  kept 
stored  in  metal  boxes,  closed  by  iron  lids,  and  raised 
up  from  the  floor  on  legs. 

The  theatre-director  and  stage-manager  should  at 
all  times  remember  that  the  safety  of  the  audience 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  1 03 

is  the  chief  consideration.  To  accomplish  this  the 
strictest  rules  and  regulations  should  be  enforced,  in 
order,  first,  to  prevent  the  outbreak  of  a  fire;  second, 
to  localize  and  confine  a  fire  when  it  does  break  out ; 
third,  to  protect  the  audience  against  fire  and  panic; 
fourth,  to  secure  safe  egress  in  case  of  fire  or  panic  to 
the  audience  and  to  the  theatre  employes  and  actors ; 
and  fifth,  to  extinguish  a  fire  in  its  incipiency,  before  it 
has  a  chance  to  spread  and  carry  destruction. 

The  law  should  require  every  theatre-manager  to 
have  in  the  office  of  the  theatre  a  complaint-book, 
which  should  be  accessible  to  the  public  and  to  the 
press.  In  this  book  every  person  observing  some  real 
defect  should  call  attention  to  the  same,  so  that  the 
complaint  may  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  authori- 
ties for  investigation  and  remedy. 

No  interior  alterations  affecting  either  the  plan  or 
the  arrangement  and  construction  should  be  made  in 
any  existing  theatre  without  the  approval  of  the  build- 
ing or  fire  departments. 

Periodical  Inspection. 

A  few  words,  in  conclusion,  about  theatre  inspec- 
tions. Eternal  vigilance  forms  the  only  assurance  of 
continued  safety  in  a  theatre.  There  should  be,  to 
begin  with,  examinations  and  visits  to  all  parts  of  the 
building  after  each  evening  and  matinee  performance. 
Then  there  should  be  general  and  frequent  examina- 
tions, either  by  the  architect  who  designed  the  struc- 
ture, and  who  is  more  than  any  one  else  familiar  with 
all  its  features,  or  by  a  specially  appointed  committee 
of  experts.  Such  a  committee  would  be  suitably 


104  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

composed  of  the  following  members,  viz.,  the  manager, 
an  architect,  a  builder,  an  underwriter  or  a  member 
•  of  the  fire-department,  an  hydraulic  engineer,  and  an 
expert  electrical  engineer. 

A  periodical  inspection  in  detail  of  all  gas  and  water 
fittings,  frequent  tests  of  the  gas-pipes,  of  the  fire- 
pump,  of  the  automatic-sprinkler  system,  and  of  all 
other  fire  appliances;  of  the  electric-lighting  sys- 
tem, of  the  fire-telegraph  and  fire-alarm  systems,  and 
of  the  various  other  electric  equipments;  of  the  fire- 
proof curtain,  the  stage-roof  ventilators,  and  the  light- 
ning-rod protection, — these  are  all  necessary  to  prevent 
a  failure  in  the  working  of  any  of  the  safeguards  in 
an  emergency. 

There  should  be,  moreover,  occasional  official  in- 
spections by  the  authorities,  the  fire  or  the  building 
department,  preferably  without  a  previous  announce- 
ment. Repeated  inspections  of  new  theatre  buildings 
are  necessary  to  prevent  any  transgressions  of  the 
theatre  fire  law  by  the  theatre-manager,  or  the  engineer 
in  charge  of  the  theatre,  after  the  same  has  passed 
inspection  and  received  the  approval  of  the  authorities. 
It  also  sometimes  happens  that  after  the  theatre 
license  has  once  been  obtained  internal  changes  in 
arrangement  or  equipment  are  made  which  would  be 
contrary  to  the  rules,  and  which  would  have  a  ten- 
dency to  reduce  the  safety  of  the  building. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  105 


III. 


THE   WATER-SERVICE    AND    FIRE   PROTECTION 
OF   THEATRES.* 

EVERY  effort  is  nowadays  made  to  make  theatre 
buildings  as  fire-resisting  and  safe  as  possible.  Having 
been  recently  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  plans  and 
specifications,  and  in  superintending  the  installation 
of  the  water  and  gas  service  plant  and  the  fire-extin- 
guishing appliances  of  several  modern  theatres,  I  have 
prepared  a  paper,  giving  a  detailed  description  of  the 
general  features  and  fundamental  requirements  of  the 
water  and  fire-protection  service  in  theatres,  in  the 
hope  that  it  may  prove  of  use  to  architects,  engineers, 
underwriters,  and  theatre-managers,  and  of  general 
interest  to  all  persons  frequenting  such  places  of  amuse- 
ment. By  way  of  introduction  it  may  be  well  to  sum- 
marize briefly  the  chief  elements  which  together  con- 
stitute a  safe  and  fire-resisting  building. 

General  Requirements  of  Safety  in  Theatres. 

The  chief  conditions  of  safety  for  theatre  buildings 
are  the  following: 

I.  As  Regards  the  Location. — The  theatre  to  be,  if 
possible,  either  isolated  on  all  sides,  or  standing  free 

*  This  paper  was  originally  prepared  for  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
New  England  Water-works  Association,  held  in  Boston,  June,  1894. 


IO6  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

on  three  sides.  If  located  in  a  block,  the  building  to 
have  the  full  front  on  the  public  street,  with  a  wide 
open  court  on  either  side.  If  placed  on  a  corner  lot, 
a  wide  court  to  be  arranged  at  one  side. 

II.  As  Regards  the  Plan. — The  chief  divisions  of  the 
theatre  to  be  entirely  separate  and  distinct  from  each 
other.    The  stage  to  be  separated  from  the  auditorium, 
the  dressing-rooms   from    the  stage,   the   auditorium 
from  the  lobby,  entrances,  and  staircases,   by  strong 
fire-walls. 

The  vertical  subdivisions  of  the  auditorium,  the 
orchestra,  dress-circle,  balcony,  and  the  galleries  to  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  fire-proof  floors  and 
ceilings.  Each  division  to  have  at  least  two  separate 
and  ample  means  of  egress. 

The  stage  to  have  at  least  two  separate  exits  to  the 
street. 

The  scene-docks,  the  carpenter's  and  painter's 
shops,  and  other  workshops  to  be  located  in  a  separate 
fire-proof  annex. 

No  living  apartments  to  be  planned  in  a  theatre. 
No  stores  to  be  provided,  except  they  are  entirely 
isolated,  fireproofed,  and  not  in  communication  with 
the  theatre. 

III.  As  Regards  the  Construction. — The  whole  build- 
ing to  be  constructed   in  a  fire-resisting  manner.     All 
divisions  to  be  enclosed  by  fire-walls  carried  above  the 
roof.    All  staircases,  corridors,  floors,  and  ceilings  and 
partitions  to  be  built  fire-proof.     All  roofs  to  be  fire- 
proof. 

The  sides  of  the  stage,  the  fly-galleries,  the  rigging- 
loft,  and  the  stage  roof  to  be  built  in  a  fire-proof 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  IO/ 

manner.  As  little  combustible  material  as  possible  to 
be  used  on  the  stage  proper,  and  steel-wire  ropes  to  be 
substituted  for  hemp  ropes  wherever  practicable. 

All  dressing-rooms  to  be  built  fire-proof. 

The  boxes  and  fronts  of  balconies  and  galleries,  the 
frame  of  the  proscenium-opening,  and  the  auditorium 
ceiling  to  be  built  of  fire-proof  material. 

The  main  auditorium  floor  to  be  located  on  the 
street  level,  not  in  an  upper  story.  All  open  stair 
wells  to  be  avoided  as  dangerous,  and  all  stairs  to  be 
enclosed  in  fire-walls. 

IV.  As  Regards  the  Interior  Arrangement  and 
Equipment. — The  opening  in  the  proscenium-wall  be- 
tween the  stage  and  the  auditorium  to  be  provided  with 
a  fire-proof  iron  or  asbestos  curtain.  The  apparatus 
for  raising  or  lowering  the  fire-curtain  to  be  on  the 
stage,  and  not  in  the  rigging-loft.  Other  openings  in 
the  proscenium-wall  to  be  only  at  or  below  the  stage 
level,  to  be  as  few  in  number  as  possible,  and  to  be 
closed  with  automatic  fire-proof  iron  or  double  tinned 
wooden  doors. 

The  roof  over  stage  to  be  provided  with  a  large 
automatic  stage  ventilator  or  with  sliding  skylights, 
held  closed  by  hemp  rope  run  down  to  the  stage 
level. 

The  central  lustre  in  the  auditorium  ceiling  and  its 
ventilator  to  be  abolished. 

None  of  the  windows  in  the  building  to  be  provided 
with  iron  grilles  or  gratings. 

All  seats  to  be  securely  fastened  to  the  floor,  and 
not  more  than  thirteen  seats  to  be  placed  between 
aisles.  No  camp-stools  to  be  placed  in  the  aisles. 


IO8  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

All  aisles,  passages,  corridors,  and  stairs  to  be  kept 
free  at  all  times  from  all  obstructions.  The  aisles  to 
have  gradients,  and  not  steps. 

Separate  stairs  and  exits  to  the  street  to  be  pro- 
vided in  sufficient  number  and  width  for  each  part  of 
the  audience,  permitting  the  complete  emptying  of 
the  theatre  in  from  two  to  three  minutes. 

All  stairs  to  have  even  and  uniform  treads  and 
risers,  and  to  be  provided  on  both  sides  with  strong 
handrails.  No  single  steps  or  winding  stairs  to  be  per- 
mitted. 

All  doors  to  open  outward  and  in  such  a  manner  as 
not  to  obstruct  the  passages. 

Fire-escape  balconies  and  outside  iron  stairs  leading 
to  the  open  courts  or  the  street  to  be  provided  with 
at  least  two  exits  from  each  tier,  and  at  least  one  such 
fire-escape  to  be  located  on  each  side  of  the  audi- 
torium. Iron  fire-ladders  for  use  of  the  firemen  to  be 
provided  on  the  outside  walls. 

The  theatre  to  be  heated  from  one  central  heating 
apparatus.  The  steam-boilers  to  be  placed  outside  of 
the  building  proper.  The  boiler  smoke-flue  to  be  lined 
with  tile-pipe. 

The  lighting  of  the  stage,  and  that  of  the  passages, 
stairs,  exits,  lobbies,  and  rear  portion  of  the  auditor- 
ium, to  be  from  separate  gas-mains.  Each  of  these 
two  gas-mains  to  be  controlled  by  shut-offs  on  the  side- 
walk. 

The  gas-meters  to  be  located  in  well-ventilated  fire- 
proof and  isolated  vaults. 

All  open  gas-flames  to  be  surrounded  with  large 
wire  cages,  and  all  bracket  lights  to  be  stiff.  All  foot- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND  PRE^ENTlOJ^.  1 69 

lights,  border-lights,  and  bunch-lights  to  have  special 
means  of  protection. 

The  lighting  of  foot  and  border  lights  to  be  done 
by  means  of  electric  flash-lighting,  and  not  with  alcohol 
torches. 

Auxiliary  oil-lamps  or  candles,  protected  against 
draft,  to  be  provided  in  corridors,  stairs,  and  exits. 

All  woodwork  of  stage,  all  decorative  scenery,  and 
all  gauze  costumes  to  be  impregnated  and  rendered 
fire-proof. 

The  building  to  be  protected  against  lightning  by  a 
well-equipped  system  of  lightning-rods. 

Finally,  provision  to  be  made  for  plenty  of  efficient 
fire-extinguishing  appliances,  always  kept  in  readiness, 
and  to  include  outside  fire-hydrants,  a  fire-pump,  lines 
of  stand-pipes,  with  fire-valves  in  each  tier  of  audi- 
torium and  of  stage,  and  with  fire-hose  attached;  an 
automatic-sprinkler  system,  with  tank-supply  and  fire- 
department  outside  connection,  casks  of  water,  fire- 
pails,  portable  chemical  extinguisher  apparatus,  pick- 
axes, fire-hooks,  and  other  appliances,  as  described 
further  on  in  detail. 

V.  As  Regards  the  Management. — The  fire-curtain 
to  be  used  at  each  performance. 

All  doors,  exits,  and  stairs  to  be  kept  open  and 
used  at  each  performance. 

Doors  not  leading  to  exits  to  be  marked  with  the 
name  of  the  room  to  which  they  lead,  or  simply  by 
the  words  "  no  exit." 

All  exits  to  be  plainly  marked  in  large  legible  letters. 

After  the  performance  lights  in  the  auditorium  not 
to  be  lowered  until  the  audience  has  left. 


IIO  THEATRE  FlRES  AND   PANICS:  <  • 

The  auxiliary  oil-lamps  or  candles  in  stairs,  corridors, 
and  exits  to  be  lighted  before  each  performance,  and 
not  to  be  extinguished  until  the  entire  audience  has 
dispersed. 

The  oil-lamps  to  be  filled,  cleaned,  and  trimmed  by 
daylight  only. 

Safety  lanterns  in  place  of  open  lights  to  be  used  in 
entering  large  wardrobes. 

Smoking  in  the  theatre  and  in  the  dressing-rooms 
to  be  prohibited. 

Strict  rules  to  be  enforced  regarding  careful  use  of 
fireworks  and  firearms  on  the  stage.  Paper  wads  for 
pistols  and  guns  to  be  prohibited. 

Open  fires  and  open  lights,  candelabras  with  candles, 
and  oil-lamps  on  the  stage  to  be  used  carefully. 
The  use  of  matches  to  be  restricted  fo  the  kind  known 
as  "  safety  "  matches. 

The  complete  darkening  of  ihe  auditorium  during 
scene-shifting  with  raised  curtain  to  be  previously 
announced  to  the  audience  to  prevent  a  false  alarm 
or  panic. 

Renewal  of  chemical  impregnation  of  all  gauze 
dresses  after  each  washing. 

The  fire-appliances  to  be  kept  in  readiness,  the  fire- 
valves  to  be  kept  unencumbered,  the  fire-pails  to  be 
always  kept  filled  with  water,  and  access  to  the  fire- 
valves  not  to  be  blocked. 

The  automatic  fire-alarm  to  be  kept  in  order. 

The  theatre  to  be  in  telegraphic  and  telephonic 
communication  with  the  nearest  fire  -  department 
station. 


THEIR  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION.         iil 

A  fire-watch  to  be  provided  during  performances, 
and  also  a  permanent  night-watch. 

All  oily  rags  and  cotton  waste  to  be  stored  in  metal 
vessels  with  tight  cover. 

Frequent  removal  of  all  accumulation  of  oily  waste, 
rubbish,  paper  and  litter,  dirt  and  dust. 

Storage  of  large  quantities  of  scenery  on  or  behind 
the  stage  not  to  be  tolerated. 

Plans  of  the  building  to  be  hung  up  in  conspicuous 
places  in  the  theatre,  and  to  be  printed  on  all  pro- 
grammes, with  the  position  of  stairs  and  exits  legibly 
marked. 

Life-saving  appliances  to  be  kept  on  hand. 

A  fire-drill  to  be  organized  among  the  theatre  em- 
ployes and  stage-hands. 

No  greater  number  of  tickets  of  admission  to  be 
issued  than  that  for  which  each  division  of  the  theatre 
is  licensed. 

No  standing-room  to  be  permitted  in  any  aisles. 

VI.  As  regards  Inspection. — A  nightly  inspection 
of  the  building,  including  a  visit  to  every  part  of  the 
theatre  after  each  performance,  to  be  insisted  upon. 

The  faithfulness  of  the  night-watchman  to  be  con- 
trolled by  an  electric  watchman's  clock. 

The  theatre  to  be  frequently  reinspected  by  its 
architect,  by  experts,  by  underwriters,  or  by  the  fire- 
department,  the  inspections  to  take  place  preferably 
at  unexpected  hours. 

Periodical  tests  of  all  gas-piping,  of  all  fire-appa- 
ratus, of  the  fire-alarm,  telegraph  connections,  of  the 
automatic  stage-roof  ventilator,  and  of  the  lightning- 
rods  to  be  carried  out. 


112  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

Important  as  the  observance  of  all  these  require- 
ment is  in  the  case  of  the  newer  and  better  constructed 
theatres,  it  is  quite  obvious  that  in  the  older  theatres, 
which  have  been  erected  without  any  regard  to  fire- 
resisting  qualities,  they  are,  with  the  exception  of  those 
relating  to  fire-proof  construction,  still  more  indis- 
pensable to  secure  the  safety  of  the  audience  and  of  the 
actors.  As  regards,  in  particular,  the  fire-service, 
which  I  am  about  to  describe,  it  is  self-evident  that  if 
it  is  needed  in  a  theatre  constructed  in  a  fire-proof 
manner,  it  is  absolutely  indispensable  as  a  protection 
for  such  structures  as  are  flimsy  in  construction, 
highly  combustible,  and  in  many  cases  exceedingly 
hazardous. 

Fire-extinguishing  Appliances. 

I  will  now  take  up  the  subject  proper  of  my  paper, 
and  I  propose  to  discuss  in  detail  the  fire-appli- 
ances needed  for  the  extinguishment  of  fires  in 
theatres.  A  theatre  building  may  be  planned  and 
constructed  in  a  fire-resisting  manner  and  with  all  due 
precautions  to  prevent  the  rapid  spreading  of  the 
flames,  yet  in  spite  of  all  conceivable  measures  of 
safety  a  fire  may  break  out.  Therefore,  ample  fire- 
appliances  must  be  on  hand  and  kept  in  constant 
readiness  to  fight  the  fire  and  to  put  out  the  flames. 
All  fire-extinguishing  apparatus  should  be  of  the  very 
best  of  its  kind,  and  it  should  always  be  properly  cared 
for  and  kept  in  working  order  and  ready  for  instant 
use. 

A  complete  fire  protection  of  a  theatre  must  include: 


THEIR   CAUSES   AND    PREVENTION.  11$ 

1.  Outside  fire-hydrants; 

2.  Inside    stand-pipes,    with    fire-valves,    fire-hose, 
and  fire-nozzles,  supplied  from  direct  street  pressure 
or  from — 

3 .  Tanks ;  or  from — 

4.  Fire-pumps; 

5.  An   automatic-sprinkler   system,    with  elevated 
water-tank  and  outside  or  fire-department  connection ; 

6.  A  system  of  perforated  pipes  on  the  stage  over 
the  proscenium-opening; 

7.  Fire-pails  and  casks  of  water; 

8.  Chemical  or  portable  fire-extinguishers; 

9.  A  series  of  wet  sponges  on  long  poles; 

10.  Wet    woollen    blankets,    asbestos    sheets,  and 
asbestos  gloves ; 

11.  Steam-nozzles  or  jets; 

12.  Fire-axes,  fire-hooks,  and  knives. 
Acknowledgment  must    in  this  place   be  made  to 

the  valuable  services  rendered  to  the  cause  of  fire 
protection  and  fire  extinction  of  all  classes  of  risks  by 
the  researches  and  labors  of  the  engineers  of  the 
Mutual  Factory  Assurance  Companies  of  Boston,  to 
many  of  Mr.  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury's  papers  on  mill 
protection  and  on  automatic  sprinklers  in  particular, 
and  to  Mr.  John  R.  Freeman's  able  specifications  for 
fire-pumps,  and  fire-hose,  and  his  elaborate  and  pains- 
taking experiments  on  fire-streams  and  fire-nozzles. 
Taken  together,  these  contain  the  most  important 
facts  upon  the  subject  ever  published,  and  the  valu- 
able conclusions  reached  by  them  may  with  advantage 
be  applied  to  the  equipment  of  fire-service  plants  in 
theatres. 


H4  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

i.  WATER-SUPPLY  AND  WATER-MAINS. 

For  the  outside  protection  of  theatres  it  is  necessary 
that  there  should  be  a  large  water-main  in  the  street 
or  streets  where  the  building  is  located.  The  size  of 
the  main  should  be  at  least  8  inches  in  diameter, 
while  a  10  or  12  inch  main  would  be  still  better.  To 
this  main  should  be  connected  the  various  outside 
hydrants  for  fire-department  use,  located  in  front  of 
the  theatre,  in  sufficient  number  and  at  suitable  dis- 
tances apart. 

The  outside  fire-hydrants  should  preferably  be  frost- 
proof post  hydrants,  with  four  independent  gate-valve 
connections,  so  as  to  give  an  opportunity,  where  the 
pressure  is  amples  to  bring  into  play  a  number  of  hose 
streams.  The  hydrants  should  be  examined  frequently 
during  freezing  weather,  and  their  working  parts  must 
be  oiled  occasionally  with  heavy  mineral  oil. 

A  very  abundant  supply  of  water  for  a  theatre 
building  is  necessary  for  fire  protection. 

The  size  of  the  water-supply  main  run  into  the 
theatre  is  dependent  upon  the  available  pressure,  and 
largely  upon  the  number  of  fire-valves  in  the  building 
where  these  are  supplied  under  direct  pressure,  or  else 
upon  the  size  and  capacity  of  the  fire-pump  installed. 
The  New  York  Building  Law,  for  instance,  requires 
"  the  fire-pump  to  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply 
all  lines  of  hose  when  operated  simultaneously;"  but 
in  practice  this  requirement  is  never  insisted  upon,  as 
it  would  lead,  in  even  medium-sized  theatres,  to 
pumps,  water-mains,  and  steam-boilers  of  unreasonable 
size.  A  "  four-stream  "  fire-pump,  delivering  at  the 


THEIR  CAUSES  AMD   PREVENTION'.  11$ 

rate  of  1000  gallons  per  minute,  and  able  to  supply 
from  four  to  five  fire-streams  rated  at  from  200-250 
gallons  per  minute  each,  would  require  a  12-inch  suc- 
tion-pipe. It  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  secure 
from  the  city  water-department  a  connection  of  this 
large  size  with  the  main.  As  a  rule,  a  4-inch  sup- 
ply main  is  all  that  is  conceded,  although  a  6-inch 
supply  or  two  4-inch  supplies  from  different  street 
mains,  and  cross-connected  within  the  building,  are 
undoubtedly  much  to  be  desired.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  a  reserve  supply,  stored  in  a  large  suc- 
tion-tank, should  never  be  omitted,  and  the  smaller 
the  service-pipe  obtained,  the  larger  should  be  the 
capacity  of  the  suction  reservoir. 

The  water  available  for  fire  protection  must  be  ready 
under  such  a  pressure  as  to  permit  the  water  to  be 
forced  in  sufficient  volume  to  all  parts  of  the  building. 
As  a  rule,  in  our  large  cities,  the  direct  or  street 
pressure  is  insufficient  for  fire-service.  It  therefore 
becomes  necessary  to  supply  the  inside  fire-streams 
either  from  sufficiently  elevated  open  fire-tanks,  or 
from  closed  tanks,  operated  under  compressed  air. 
But  such  open  tanks,  even  if  placed  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  stage  roof,  would  fail  to  give  a  suitable 
fire-pressure  (45  or  50  Ibs.),  except  on  the  lower  floors 
of  the  theatre.  Closed  tanks,  operated  by  compressed 
air,  require  air-compressors  and  engines,  and  this 
means  further  complications  in  the  mechanical  plant 
of  the  building;  therefore  fire-pumps  are  usually  sub- 
stituted, and  with  an  ample  and  sufficient  steam-boiler 
capacity,  and  steam  kept  at  proper  high  presssure,  give 
in  practice  the  best  results  as  regards  fire-pressure. 


Il6  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

The  four  or  six  inch  water-main  is  usually  made  of 
heavy  cast-iron  water-pipe,  outside  of  the  building, 
whereas  in  the  building  asphalted  or  galvanized 
wrought-iron  pipe  with  screw-joints  is  used.  It  is 
necessary  to  place  a  shut-off  valve  on  this  branch  out- 
side of  the  building,  so  that  in  case  of  breakage  of  the 
inside  water-main  the  water  would  not  uselessly  run 
to  waste  and  flood  the  cellar,  and  also  so  as  not  to 
reduce  the  supply  to  the  outside  hydrants.  Particular 
care  should  also  be  taken  to  run  the  inside  main  where 
it  would  be  at  all  times  protected  against  injury. 

2.  WATER-METER  AND  BY- PASS. 

Theatres  in  this  country  are  private  enterprises, 
always  erected,  managed,  and  owned  by  individuals, 
firms,  or  corporations,  and  hence  the  water  taken  into 
the  building  is  subject  to  the  usual  water-tax.  In 
most  cases  the  water-department  insists  on  supplying 
the  water  by  meter  measurement.  The  water  from 
the  four  or  six  inch  main  should  therefore  pass 
through  a  meter  of  corresponding  size,  and  shut-off 
gate-valves  must  be  placed  on  each  side  of  the  water- 
meter  in  order  to  be  able  to  disconnect  and  exchange 
the  same  in  case  of  repair.  It  is,  however,  in  my  judg- 
ment, not  only  unnecessary,  but  objectionable,  to  re- 
quire that  in  case  of  an  emergency  the  fire-pump  should 
draw  its  supply  through  a  meter.  In  several  theatres, 
the  fire  protection  of  which  was  under  my  charge,  I 
therefore  endeavored  to  obtain  from  the  city  water- 
department  a  full-size  by-pass,  controlled  by  a  gate- 
valve.  My  intention  was  that  this  by-pass  valve  should 
ordinarily  be  kept  strapped  and  sealed  with  a  seal  of 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  117 

the  water-department  to  prevent  the  unlawful  use  of 
the  valve,  and  that  it  should  be  cut  and  the  valve 
opened  only  in  case  of  fire,  so  as  to  admit  a  direct 
supply  to  the  fire-pump.  I  learn  that  such  by-passes 
are  granted  for  this  purpose  in  France  and  Germany, 
but  I  was  unable  to  convince  the  New  York  City 
Water  Department  of  the  desirability  of  such  a  device, 
and  the  by-pass  arrangement  proposed  did  not  receive 
the  approval  of  the  authorities,  although  no  good 
reason  was  given  for  the  refusal. 

3.  SHUT-OFFS  AND  GATE-VALVES. 

All  supply-mains  and  the  distributing  service-pipes 
in  a  theatre  should  be  controlled  by  valves  made  of 
gun-metal,  in  the  best  manner,  and  only  the  best 
quality  of  valves  should  be  purchased.  Globe-valves 
should  not  be  used,  gate- valves  being  much  preferable, 
because  they  have  a  full  waterway.  At  the  pumps 
angle-valves  may  be  used  on  the  suction-pipes. 

The  fire  lines  starting  at  the  fire-pump  and  connect- 
ing with  the  stand-pipes  should  preferably  not  have 
any  shut-off  valves,  or  else  if  valves  are  used  they 
must  be  kept  open  and  strapped;  otherwise  it  may 
happen  in  a  case  of  emergency  that  on  turning  open 
a  fire-valve  no  water  will  be  had,  the  gate- valve  on 
the  line  having  been  accidentally  closed  in  the  cellar. 
All  valves  should  be  provided  with  wheel  handles,  and 
these  should  be  marked  with  arrows  indicating  the 
direction  in  which  they  open.  It  is  also  recommended 
to  provide  all  water-valves  with  telltales  showing 
automatically  at  all  times  and  at  a  glance  whether  the 
valves  are  open  or  closed.  Such  telltale  indicators 


Il8  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

may  be  obtained  from  many  of  the  firms  making  the 
manufacture  of  gate-valves  a  specialty,  and  among  the 
best  are  those  of  the  Chapman,  Ludlow,  Kennedy, 
and  Walworth  Manufacturing  Companies. 

4.  FIRE-PUMPS. 

The  fire-pumps  installed  in  theatres  are  either  rotary 
steam-pumps  of  the  fire-engine  type,  or  else  direct- 
acting  steam  fire-pumps.  Excellent  rotary  steam 
fire-pumps  are  made  by  manufacturers  of  steam  fire- 
engines,  but  in  theatres  the  direct-acting  pump  is  used 
to  a  much  greater  extent.  While  the  ordinary  so-called 
fire-pumps  will  answer  the  purpose,  it  is  advisable  to 
use  in  theatres  the  best  procurable  kind  of  pump.  Of 
these  the  "  Underwriter  pattern  "  steam  fire-pump  is 
without  doubt  the  most  advanced  and  most  serviceable 
type  of  direct-acting  pump.  I  will  give  a  brief  state- 
ment of  its  chief  features,  based  upon  the  admirable 
and  elaborate  specifications  prepared  by  Mr.  John  R. 
Freeman,  Hydraulic  Engineer  to  the  Associated  Fac- 
tory Mutual  Insurance  Companies,  to  which  I  refer  for 
further  details. 

The  "  Underwriter"  fire-pump  is  a  pump  of  the 
"  Duplex  "  type,  built  in  a  very  heavy  and  substan- 
tial manner,  and  fitted  with  certain  improvements. 
This  pump  differs  from  the  ordinary  direct-acting  fire- 
pumps  in  the  following  points,  viz. : 

i .  The  steam-ports  and  the  water-passages  are  made 
more  direct,  and  from  25  to  50  per  cent  larger;  the 
suction-pipe  and  the  air-chambers  are  increased  in  size 
correspondingly,  so  as  to  make  the  pump  more  power- 
ful and  able  to  deliver  a  larger  volume  of  water  with- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  IIQ 

out  water-hammer,  and  so  as  to  permit  the  pump  to 
be  run  at  high  speed. 

2.  The   principal  working  parts  of  the   pump  are 
made  rust-proof,  so  as  to  permit  the  pump  to  start 
instantly   after    long    periods    of   disuse.       Thus  the 
piston-rods  and  valve-rods  are  made  of  Tobin  bronze 
instead  of  steel,  and  the  water-plungers  and  stuffing- 
boxes  are  made  of  brass  instead  of  cast  iron. 

3.  The  shells,   castings,   and  the  bolting  are  war- 
ranted especially  strong,    to  withstand  heavy  press- 
ures, and  the  whole  pump  is  accordingly  built  heavier. 

4.  The  pump  is  provided   with   numerous    special 
attachments,    such   as    a    large    vacuum    chamber,    a 
water-pressure  gauge,  a  steam-pressure  gauge,  a  water 
safety  or  relief  valve,  a  set  of  brass  priming-pipes  and 
special  valves,  a  number  of  hose-valves   on  delivery 
end  of  pump,  a  stroke  gauge,  a  sight-feed  lubricator, 
and  a  capacity  plate,  all  of  which  fittings  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  ordinary  style  of  fire-pumps. 

Fire-pumps  are  usually  required  to  start  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice  and  to  run  at  double  the  piston  speed 
of  boiler-feed  or  house  pumps,  and  the  above  require- 
ments are  found  in  practice  necessary  to  enable  the 
pumps  to  run  without  jar  or  water-hammer. 

Underwriter  fire-pumps  are  now  manufactured  by 
all  the  principal  manufacturers  of  direct-acting  pumps, 
and  nearly  all  of  them  have  adopted  a  12 -inch  stroke 
as  preferable,  although  a  few  still  adhere  to  a  lo-inch 
stroke. 

There  are  five  sizes  of  Underwriter  pumps  made, 
and  the  chief  dimensions  of  these  are  given  in  the 
following  table : 


120 


THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 


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THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  121 

Details  of  Underwriter  Fire-pump. — In  all  except 
the  largest  size  of  fire-pumps  the  ratio  of  steam- 
cylinder  area  to  water-plunger  area  is  as  3  to  I,  but 
where  the  available  steam-pressure  is  low  the  ratio 
should  be  as  4  to  I. 

In  the  above  table  250  gallons  is  taken  as  the  stand- 
ard allowance  for  a  good  i-J-inch  smooth-nozzle  fire- 
stream,  and  this,  for  afire-pump  supplying  a  sprinkler 
system,  is  equivalent  to  from  15  to  20  automatic 
sprinklers. 

All  fire-pumps  should  be  built  of  sufficient  strength 
to  stand  a  steam-pressure  of  80  Ibs.  with  steam-valves 
wide  open,  and  giving,  with  all  water-valves  closed,  a 
water-pressure  of  240  to  320  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  The 
pump  must  be  well  and  strongly  bolted  in  all  its  parts, 
and  it  must  be  so  designed  and  the  strength  of  the 
principal  dimensions  so  calculated  that  a  full  head  of 
steam  may  be  safely  turned  on  to  a  cold  pump  without 
cracking  or  breaking  same  by  unequal  expansion. 

The  piston  and  valve  rods  should  be  of  solid  Tobin 
bronze,  and  the  water-plungers  must  be  of  solid  brass 
or  bronze.  All  valve-seats  to  be  of  U.  S.  gun-metal 
composition  in  order  to  avoid  the  sticking  of  valves. 
The  suction-valves  should  have  a  combined  area  equal 
to  56  per  cent  of  the  plunger  area,  for  pumps  running 
at  full  speed  and  with  12-inch  stroke.  For  a  lO-inch 
stroke  this  proportion  should  be  50  per  cent  and  for 
a  1 5 -inch  stroke  64  per  cent. 

The  force  or  discharge  valves  should  have  two  thirds 
of  the  total  port  area. 

The  steam-port  should  have  not  less  than  2\  per 
cent  the  area  of  its  piston,  and  the  exhaust-port  not 


122  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

less  than  4  per  cent.  Cushion-valves  should  be  pro- 
vided to  regulate  the  amount  of  steam-cushion,  and 
a  stroke-gauge  to  indicate  the  length  of  the  stroke. 

When  the  pump  draws  from  an  open  reservoir  only, 
not  over  20  feet  away,  through  a  large  suction-pipe, 
the  suction  or  vacuum  chamber  may  be  omitted.  The 
air-chamber  on  the  discharge  end  is  quite  necessary  Li 
the  case  of  fire-pumps,  so  as  to  avoid  the  constant 
vibration  of  the  fire-hose,  which  causes  the  hose  to 
wear  out  quickly.  It  is  usually  built  of  cast  iron,  and 
should  be  tested  undergo  Ibs.  hydraulic  pressure.  It 
is  well  to  paint  this  air-chamber  inside  and  outside  to 
reduce  its  porosity.  An  air-chamber  of  hammered 
copper  is  preferable  on  many  accounts,  although  more 
expensive,  and  should  be  tested  under  300  Ibs.  press- 
ure. 

Each  fire-pump  must  have  a  capacity  plate,  usually 
attached  to  the  air-chamber,  and  made  of  enamelled 
iron,  with  large  black  or  blue  letters  on  white  ground. 

There  should  be  on  discharge  end  of  pump,  close  to 
the  air-chamber,  a  water-pressure  gauge,  with  one- 
fourth-inch  lever  handle-cock,  and  attached  to  the 
steam-chest  inside  of  the  throttle-valve  a  similar  steam- 
pressure  gauge. 

All  fire-pumps  should  be  fitted  up  with  a  safety  relief 
valve  of  Ashton  or  Crosby's  make  and  pattern,  which 
is  attached  to  delivery  end  of  pump,  preferably  ex- 
tending horizontally  in  board  of  air-chamber.  The 
hand-wheel  for  regulating  the  pressure  should  be 
within  easy  reach,  and  should  be  conspicuously 
marked  with  arrow  indicating  direction  of  opening. 
The  safety-valve  is  ordinarily  set  at  a  working  pressure 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  123 

of  loolbs.  per  square  inch,  and  its  size  should  be  such 
that  if  pump  runs  at  125  Ibs.  pressure  and  two-thirds 
speed,  the  valve  discharges  all  the  water  freely.  This 
discharge  should  be  by  a  vertical  downward  pipe  one 
foot  long,  into  a  funnel  with  6,  8,  or  lo-inch  waste- 
pipe,  according  to  size  of  pump.  The  discharge-pipe 
is  open  at  the  funnel  in  order  to  indicate  to  the 
engineer  running  the  pump  the  water  wasting  through 
the  relief-valve. 

Each  fire-pump  must  have  all  necessary  f-inch  bore 
brass  drip  or  drain  cocks,  all  provided  with  lever 
handle.  Of  these  nine  are  required,  as  follows:  One 
at  each  end  of  the  two  water-cylinders,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  two  steam-cylinders,  and  one  above  the 
upper  deck-valve. 

Four  f-inch  brass  lever  handle  air-cocks  are  to  be 
attached  to  the  pump,  one  at  top  of  each  of  the  four 
plunger-chambers  for  use  in  priming  the  pump. 
These  air-cocks  should  preferably  be  fitted  with  check- 
valve  which  permits  outflow  and  prevents  influx  of  air 
when  the  plunger  is  sucking. 

Each  fire-pump  should  be  fitted  with  a  set  of  i-inch 
brass  priming-pipes,  including  one  2-inch  main  valve 
and  four  suitable  check-valves  leading  one  into" each 
of  the  four  plunger-chambers.  The  priming-pipes 
must  lie  close  to  the  pump  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way 
of  the  hose. 

It  is  preferable  to  feed  these  priming-valves  from  a 
100  to  200  gallon  feed-tank,  so  that  if  the  city  water 
is  shut  off  the  pump  is  not  disabled. 

Where  an  efficient  set  of  priming-pipes  is  provided, 


124  THEATRE  FIRES  AND    PANICS: 

a  foot-valv.e  on  the  suction-pipe  of  the  pump  is  not 
needed. 

A  number  of  straightway  brass  fire-valves  with  hose 
screw  at  end  suitable  for  standard  2j-inch  fire-hose 
coupling,  are  provided  at  delivery  end  of  each  fire- 
pump. 

All  fire-pumps  should  be  tested  before  acceptance, 
by  a  number  of  tests,  for  delivery,  capacity,  strength, 
etc. 

A  fire-pump,  set  up  in  good  order,  properly  packed, 
must  run  smoothly,  noiselessly,  without  jarring,  slam- 
ming, jumping,  hammering,  at  its  full  rate  of  speed 
(70  revolutions  per  minute)  with  full  length  of  stroke, 
and  maintain  a  water-pressure  of  100  Ibs.  with  from 
45  to  50  Ibs.  steam-pressure.  The  water  during  the 
tests  should  be  discharged  through  lines  of  2j-inch 
cotton,  rubber-lined  fire-hose,  each  line  about  150  feet 
long,  and  through  i-J-inch  standard  Underwriter 
smooth  fire-nozzles,  the  hose  being  connected  to  the 
valves  at  the  pump. 

A  two-stream  pump  should  be  tested  with  two  lines 
of  hose,  a  four-stream  pump  with  four  lines,  and  so 
forth.  The  quietness  of  the  hose  is  an  indication  of 
the  perfection  of  the  pump,  and  bad  pulsations  in- 
dicate a  non-uniformity  of  delivery. 

The  test  for  strength  is  made  by  shutting  nearly, 
but  not  quite,  all  water  outlets,  so  that  the  pump 
moves  very  slowly,  and  screwing  the  safety-valve  down 
hard.  If  steam  is  admitted  sufficient  to  give  240  Ibs. 
water-pressure,  all  pump  joints  should  remain  tight. 

Fire-pump  for  Theatres. — As  regard  the  size  of 
fire-pump  required  for  a  theatre,  the  minimum  size  for 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  12$ 

use  in  small  theatres  would  be  a  two-stream  pump, 
having  a  capacity  of  500  gallons  per  minute;  for  me- 
dium-sized theatres  I  would  recommend  the  use  of  the 
four-stream  pump,  supplying  1000  gallons  per  minute, 
and  for  large  theatres  either  the  six-stream  pump 
(capacity  1500  gallons),  or,  better,  two  four-stream 
pumps  (combined  capacity  2000  gallons). 

Although  a  large  theatre  may  be  provided  with 
from  25  to  50  fire-valves,  the  requirement  that  the 
pump  should  supply  all  the  streams  simultaneously, 
as  it  reads  for  instance  in  the  New  York  Building  Law, 
seems  to  me  altogether  unnecessary,  and  in  practice  it 
is  never  insisted  on.  As  is  well  known,  most  of  the 
theatre  fires  have  their  origin  on  or  about  the  stage, 
and  all  that  can  be  reasonably  required  is  that  the  half 
a  dozen  or  so  fire-valves  operated  at  these  points  should 
be  supplied  with  a  full  and  effective  stream.  If  the 
fire  has  already  gained  so  much  headway  that  it  cannot 
be  checked  or  controlled  by  the  hose-streams  on  the 
stage,  persons  would  rarely  be  found  who  would  risk 
their  lives  by  staying  in  the  burning  building  to  handle 
additional  streams.  At  such  times  the  building  had 
better  be  turned  over  to  the  city  fire-brigade  and 
their  fire-engines.  The  chief  object  of  the  inside  fire- 
valves  is  to  fight  local  fires,  either  on  the  stage,  in  the 
flies,  in  the  dressing-rooms,  in  the  boiler-room,  or  in 
some  part  of  the  auditorium,  before  they  have  gained 
any  considerable  headway. 

The  fire-pump  of  a  theatre  must  under  all  circum- 
stances be  kept  ready  for  instant  operation  during  all 
performances.  Sufficient  steam-pressure  must  be 
maintained  in  the  boilers  for  this  purpose.  The  fire- 


126  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

pump  must  be  in  good  order  at  all  times,  and  should 
be  used  at  least  once  a  week. 

The  fire-pump  in  theatres  is,  as  a  rule,  used  to 
supply  the  fire-tank  of  the  sprinkler  system,  and  a  2\ 
or  3  inch  pump-riser,  which  has  a  shut-off  valve  at 
the  pump,  is  carried  up  to  this  tank.  Since  the  tank 
of  the  sprinkler  system  does  not  require  refilling  so 
often,  it  is  well  to  make  it  a  practice  to  use  the  fire- 
pump  occasionally  for  filling  the  house-tank  by  cross- 
connecting  its  discharge  end  with  the  pump  main  for 
the  house-pump. 

The  discharge  outlet  of  the  pump  is  fitted  up  with 
a  manifold,  to  which  all  the  2^-inch  fire  stand-pipes  in 
the  theatre  are  separately  connected,  without  any  gate- 
valves  at  the  manifold. 

An  excellent  arrangement,  which  for  instance  in 
New  York  City  is  made  a  requirement  of  the  fire  and 
building  departments,  is  that  the  fire-pump  is  fitted 
with  an  automatic  pressure-regulator,  so  that  in  case  a 
fire-valve  is  opened  anywhere  the  fire-pump  is  started 
instantly  and  automatically.  I  have  used  for  this 
purpose  with  success  the  Fisher  pressure-regulator  or 
pump-governor. 

The  fire-pump  should  be  placed  either  in  the  engine- 
room  or  in  the  boiler-room,  where  in  the  event  of  a 
fire  in  the  theatre  it  would  be  least  liable  to  be  affected 
by  the  flames.  It  should  be  set  on  proper  brick 
foundations,  finished  on  top  with  an  axed  bluestone 
cap,  set  perfectly  level.  The  smaller  sizes  of  pumps 
should  be  bolted  down  at  the  water  end  only,  leaving 
the  steam  end  free  for  expansion ;  but  in  the  case  of  the 
larger  sizes  of  fire-pumps  all  bolting  and  anchoring  to 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  I2/ 

the  foundations  is  usually  omitted,  for  the  large  weight 
of  the  pumps  is  sufficient  to  keep  them  securely  in 
place. 

The  steam-boiler  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
furnish  ample  steam  under  high  pressure  to  the  fire- 
pump.  The  boiler  should  be  fed  from  injectors  and 
from  a  good-sized  boiler  feed-pump,  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
a  boiler  explosion  in  case  the  water  in  the  boiler  should 
get  low  when  the  fire-pump  is  going  at  full  speed. 

5.  SUCTION-RESERVOIR. 

Ordinarily,  the  fire-pump,  as  well  as  the  boiler  and 
house-tank  pumps,  should  draw  their  supply  from  an 
open  suction-reservoir,  and  not  directly  from  the  sup- 
ply-mains. This  suction-tank,  if  suitably  large,  would 
act  in  case  of  a  fire  as  a  storage-reservoir  for  the  fire- 
pump.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  make  this  tank  as 
large  as  the  space  at  disposal  and  the  available  means 
permit.  A  2OOO-gallon  tank  should  be  considered  the 
minimum  size,  but  where  it  can  be  obtained,  I  should 
advise  using  at  least  a  io;ooo-gallon  tank.  This  would 
give  to  a  four-stream  fire-pump  a  reserve  supply  last- 
ing at  least  10  minutes,  with  the  pump  going  at  full 
speed. 

The  suction-reservoir  is  usually  made  of  boiler-iron 
sheets,  well  and  tightly  riveted  together,  and  strongly 
stayed  and  braced.  It  is  supplied  from  the  theatre 
water-main  by  a  number  of  ball-cocks  of  large  size. 
To  guard  against  overflow  in  case  the  ball-cocks  get 
out  of  order  it  is  provided  with  a  large  overflow  pipe, 
carried  over  a  trapped  and  sewer-connected  sink.  The 


128  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANIC": 

suction-tank  is  connected  with  the  fire-pump  by  a  suc- 
tion-pipe of  diameter  corresponding  to  the  size  of  the 
pump,  and  it  is  also  connected  with  the  other  steam- 
pumps  constituting  together  the  pumping-plant. 

The  suction  end  of  the  fire-pump  is  also  connected 
with  the  direct,  supply  fom  the  street  main.  It  is 
advisable  to  cross-connect  all  pumps  in  this  manner, 
so  that  in  case  the  reservoir  is  emptied,  for  cleaning 
or  other  purposes,  the  pumps  are  enabled  to  draw 
water  directly  from  the  street.  The  suction-pipe  of 
the  fire-pump  varies  from  8  to  12  inches,  according  to 
size;  and  where  it  connects  with  the  street  main,  which 
as  stated  above  is  rarely  larger  than  4  inches,  a  suitable 
reducing  fitting  should  be  used,  and  the  use  of  bush- 
ings should  not  be  permitted. 

A  still  better  fire  protection  would  be  obtained  by 
providing  two  independent  supplies  to  the  fire-pump, 
from  mains  on  different  streets,  so  that  in  case  the  fire- 
engines  have  arrived  arid  being  connected  to  the  fire- 
hydrants  outside  of  the  theatre  exhaust  the  capacity 
of  the  main  in  front  of  the  theatre,  the  inside  fire-pump 
would  still  be  kept  supplied  with  water  by  the  second 
independent  main. 

6.  FIRE  STAND-PIPES. 

At  suitable  points  in  the  four  subdivisions  of  a 
theatre,  fire  stand-pipes,  with  fire-valves  and  hose 
attached,  should  be  placed.  The  largest  number  of 
fire-valves  is  required  on  or  about  the  various  levels 
of  the  stage  where  a  fire  is  most  likely  to  break  out. 
There  should  also  be  fire  stand-pipes  in  the  auditorium, 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  1 2$ 

in  the  corridors  and  lobbies,  and  near  the  dressing- 
rooms,  and  they  should  be  so  distributed  that  the 
remotest  corner  can  be  reached  by  the  fire-hose  at 
each  of  the  outlets. 

The  number  of  stand-pipes  required  and  their  posi- 
tion depend,  therefore,  upon  the  size  and  area  of  the 
theatre  and  upon  the  length  of  the  fire-hose  attached 
to  the  fire-valves.  The  New  York  City  Building  Law 
requires  that  one  stand-pipe  be  provided  on  each  side 
of  the  stage,  with  outlets  on  every  floor  and  gallery, 
from  the  under-stage  to  the  rigging-loft;  one  stand- 
pipe  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium,  with  outlets  in 
each  tier  from  the  cellar  to  the  gallery:  one  in  the 
property-room,  and  one  in  the  carpenter's  shop.  Thus, 
in  the  new  Harrigan  Theatre  there  are  four  lines, 
and  in  the  new  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre  five  lines,  of 
stand-pipes.  Larger  theatres  would  require  a  still 
greater  number. 

The  stand-pipes  vary  in  size  from  2  to  3  inches,  but 
it  is  advisable  to  make  2-J  inches  the  minimum  size. 
All  standpipes  should  stand  entirely  free  from  the 
walls.  Each  line  should  be  connected  directly  with 
the  fire-pump  in  the  engine  or  boiler-room,  and,  as 
already  stated,  there  should  be  no  shut-off  valve  at  the 
pump.  The  usual  material  for  stand-pipes  is  galvan- 
ized wrought  iron.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  pipes 
have  to  stand  an  internal  fire-pressure  of  about  IOO 
Ibs.  per  square  inch  and  sometimes  strong  shocks  and 
jars  from  water-hammer,  it  is  advisable  to  use  double 
or  extra  heavy  wrought-iron  pipes.  Tinned  and 
annealed  brass  pipes  would,  undoubtedly,  be  prefer- 
able for  fire  stand-pipes  on  account  of  their  greater 


I3O  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

interior  smoothness,  but  the  cost  of  brass  pipe  gen- 
erally percludes  their  use. 

The  vertical  stand-pipes  should  run  as  straight  as 
possible,  avoiding  offsets  which  mean  increased  fric- 
tion. Likewise  should  the  horizontal  lines  connecting 
the  standpipes  with  the  fire-pump  be  run  as  direct  and 
with  as  few  changes  in  direction  as  possible.  Where 
changes  are  necessary,  it  is  far  better  to  use  45°  elbows, 
and  right-angle  elbows  should  be  entirely  avoided. 
The  New  York  Building  Law  stipulates  that  the  fire 
stand-pipes  must  be  connected  only  with  the  fire- 
pump,  and  not  with  the  fire-tank  which  supplies  the 
sprinkler-system. 

In  many  theatres  of  Europe  provision  is  made  for 
large  storage-tanks  placed  over  the  highest  part  of  the 
stage,  and  filled  partly  with  water  and  partly  with 
compressed  air  of  at  least  75  Ibs.  per  square  inch  pres- 
sure, and  in  this  case  the  fire-valves  and  stand-pipes 
are  supplied  from  these  special  fire-tanks,  which  also 
may  supply  a  system  of  perforated  pipes  placed  over 
the  stage,  which  in  case  of  an  emergency  serve  to 
deluge  the  stage  and  stage  scenery  with  water. 

7.  FIRE-VALVES. 

At  each  outlet  of  the  fire  lines,  and  also  at  the  fire- 
pump,  there  should  be  provided  a  fire-valve.  Straight- 
way gate-valves  of  best  gun-metal,  such  as  made  by 
the  Chapman  Valve  Manufacturing  Co.,  the  Ludlow 
Valve  Co.,  and  others,  are  the  best,  and  they  are  pref- 
erable to  angle  globe-valves,  although  the  latter  have 
the  advantage  of  permitting  the  hose  to  hang  down 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  \$\ 

straight,  and  thereby  avoid  the  possible  "  kinking  " 
of  the  hose  at  the  valve  outlet.  Fire-valves  should 
be  of  the  best  obtainable  make,  as  those  of  poor 
quality  and  bad  workmanship  are  liable  to  become 
stuck  in  the  seats. 

The  size  of  the  fire-valve  varies  from  \\  to  2j 
inches,  and  in  cities  where  this  matter  is  regulated  by 
building  laws  the  standard  fire-department  size,  viz., 
2f  inches,  is  called  for. 

The  number  of  fire-valves  varies  according  to  the 
number  of  stand-pipes,  the  number  of  tiers  or  galleries 
in  the  audience,  and  the  number  of  fly-galleries  over  the 
stage.  Thus,  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre  in  New 
York  City,  25  fire-valves  have  been  provided,  located  as 
follows,  viz. :  two  in  parquet,  two  in  balcony,  two  in 
gallery,  one  on  each  side  in  each  case,  making  in  all  six 
for  the  auditorium ;  two  under  the  stage  where  the  traps 
are,  two  on  the  stage  level,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
proscenium  opening,  four  in  the  two  fly-galleries  on 
each  side  of  stage,  and  two  in  the  rigging-loft,  making 
ten  in  all  for  the  protection  of  the  stage;  and  one  in 
basement  smoking-room,  one  in  engine-room,  one  in 
cellar  near  supers'  dressing-rooms,  five  in  the  corridors 
adjoining  the  actors'  dressing-rooms,  on  the  various 
tiers,  and  one  in  the  costumer's  room  on  the  top  floor. 

Large-sized  theatres  and  opera-houses  would  require 
a  still  greater  number. 

All  fire  stand-pipes  must  be  kept  free  from  all  en- 
cumbrances and  readily  accessible,  and  nothing  should 
be  hung  on  the  fire-valves  or  the  hose-racks.  Where 
these  lines  are  not  bronzed  with  silver,  gold,  or 
aluminum  bronze,  it  is  desirable  to  paint  the  fire 


132  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

stand-pipes  a  bright-red  color  to  make  them  con- 
spicuous. A  good  plan  consists  in  attaching  indicat- 
ing pressure-gauges  at  some  or  all  outlets  of  the  fire 
stand-pipes,  which  show  if  the  available  pressure  is 
sufficient  for  fire  purposes. 

8.  FIRE-HOSE. 

Only  the  best  kind  of  hose  is  suitable  for  use  in  a 
theatre,  and  no  expense  should  be  spared  in  this 
direction.  It  is  true  that  often  the  cheapest  kind  of 
fire-hose,  with  rough  inside  and  only  made  "  to  sell," 
is  provided,  merely  to  comply  with  the  requirements 
of  the  law  or  of  the  underwriters.  But  a  poor  quality 
of  hose,  hung  up  for  inspection  or  exhibition  purposes 
only,  will  invariably  prove  worthless,  and  leak  like  a 
sieve  or  burst  when  needed  in  an  emergency. 

The  fire-hose  may  be  leather  hose,  or  solid  rubber 
hose,  or  linen  or  cotton  hose  lined  with  rubber,  or, 
finally,  unlined  linen  hose. 

Leather  hose  is  very  expensive,  besides  being  stiff 
and  unwieldy,  and  for  these  reasons  it  is  not  much 
used,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  solid  rubber  hose. 
The  choice  for  theatres  lies  between  unlined  linen  and 
rubber-lined  cotton  hose. 

The  New  York  Building  Law  does  not  state  the 
kind  of  hose  required,  but  in  the  actual  inspection  of 
new  theatres  the  department  requires  all  theatre  fire- 
hose to  be  rubber-lined  three-ply  fire-department 
cotton  hose,  2\  inches  inside  diameter,  able  to  stand 
300  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch,  and  it  rejects  unlined 
linen  hose,  even  of  the  best  brand. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  133 

Personally,  I  do  not  concur  in  this  view.  Good 
woven  linen  hose  can  be  obtained  which  is  practically- 
water-tight  except  for  a  slight  sweating  under  pressure 
at  the  beginning,  and  which  is  able  to  stand  a  bursting 
strain  of  from  300  to  400  Ibs.  I  should  favor,  for 
indoor  use  in  theatres,  the  use  of  unlined  linen  hose, 
which  is  not  so  heavy  and  difficult  to  handle  as  rubber- 
lined  hose.  Carefully  woven  hose  may  be  obtained 
in  brands  which  have  as  much  smoothness  of  the  inside 
as  is  ordinarily  required.  While  rubber-lined  hose 
may  be  tighter,  and  therefore  will  prevent  unnecessary 
damage  by  leakage  of  water  when  new,  it  is  my  judg- 
ment that  when  hung  up  in  a  theatre,  and  perhaps 
not  used  for  a  long  period,  the  rubber  lining  will 
crack  or  disintegrate,  and  in  such  condition  the  hose 
will  be  less  useful  than  a  good  brand  of  carefully 
woven  unlined  linen  hose,  which  if  kept  dry  will  last 
for  many  years. 

In  this  view  I  believe  I  am  in  accord  with  all  ex- 
perts who  have  made  a  special  study  of  the  question 
of  suitable  material  for  fire-hose,  the  universal  verdict 
being  that  "  however  suitable  rubber-lined  linen, 
rubber,  and  leather  hose  may  be  for  public  fire-depart- 
ments, both  experience  of  use  and  tests  show  that  they 
are  not  so  well  adapted  for  inside  use."  The  chief 
argument  in  favor  of  rubber-lined  hose,  namely,  that 
it  is  not  cut  or  injured  when  lying  over  sharp  stones, 
and  that  it  is  not  worn  by  horses'  hoofs  or  wagon 
wheels,  does  not  hold  good  in  the  case  of  fire-hose  as 
applied  to  the  inside  fire-valves  in  theatres. 

Moreover,  while  I  am  fully  cognizant  of  the  great 
loss  by  friction  occurring  in  fire-hose  smaller  than  2^ 


134  TH&ATR&  FIRES  AND  PANICS: 

inches  in  diameter  (the  loss  by  friction  in  a  2  f -inch 
hose  is  stated  by  Mr.  Freeman  to  be  only  one  third  of 
what  it  is  in  a  2-inch  hose),  I  am  inclined  to  favor  for 
inside  use  in  theatres,  as  well  as  in  other  public  build- 
ings and  institutions,  the  use  of  2-inch,  or  better  even 
of  i  J-inch,  hose,  together  with  a  smaller  size  of  fire- 
nozzle.  Such  an  outfit  would  be  lighter,  more  com- 
pact, and  more  convenient  for  quick  use.  All  inside 
fire-hose  in  theatres  is  primarily  and  chiefly  intended 
for  use  in  an  emergency  by  the  theatre  employe's,  who 
are  seldom,  if  ever,  trained  firemen.  It  is  intended  for 
putting  out  quickly  a  small  fire  during  its  first  stages. 
When  a  fire  in  a  theatre  has  once  reached  a  stage 
where  it  calls  for  the  action  of  the  city  fire-depart- 
ment, the  heat  and  smoke  of  a  fierce  fire  would  be  so 
great  as  to  drive  the  men  back,  and  render  the  inside 
fire-valves  nearly  or  quite  useless.  The  standard 
2j-inch  rubber-lined  or  even  the  unlined  cotton  hose 
are  much  too  heavy  to  be  handled  with  success  by 
ordinary  employes.  Few  men,  indeed,  realize  that 
it  requires  the  full  strength  of  two  firemen  to  hold  a 
standard  fire-nozzle  under  a  water-pressure  of  only 
fifty  pounds,  and  that  an  inexperienced  man  cannot 
hold  a  fire-nozzle  if  the  pressure  exceeds  25  or  30  Ibs. 
At  each  fire-valve  there  should  be  provided  at  least 
fifty  feet  of  fire-hose,  and  the  same  must  be  kept  always 
attached  to  the  hose  end  of  the  fire-valve.  It  is  im- 
portant that  every  corner  may  be  reached  by  a  line  of 
fire-hose,  and  the  location  and  number  of  fire  stand- 
pipes  and  fire-valves  should  be  determined  with  this 
object  in  view. 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  I3f> 

9.  FIRE-NOZZLES  AND  COUPLINGS. 

The  fire-hose  should  be  provided  with  well-fastened 
couplings.  If  the  hose  is  2  j-  inches  in  diameter,  the 
couplings  should  be  of  standard  fire-department  size, 
shape  and  thread,  and  the  couplings  must  not  be 
obstructed  by  washers  projecting  on  the  inside. 

Each  length  of  hose  must  be  provided  with  a  well- 
finished  strong  brass  nozzle.  There  are  numerous 
shapes  and  patterns  of  nozzles,  or  •  '  play-pipes." 
Whatever  pattern  may  be  chosen,  the  inside  of  the 
nozzle  must  be  absolutely  smooth,  and  as  true  as  a 
gun-barrel.  Smooth,  plain  nozzles  are  the  best,  and 
there  is  no  advantage  in  using  ring  nozzles.  Mr. 
Freeman's  experiments  on  fire-jets  and  fire-nozzles 
established  the  fact  that  the  discharge  stream  from  a 
ring  nozzle  is  2 5  per  cent  less  than  that  from  a  smooth, 
plain  nozzle. 

Short  nozzles,  about  I  or  \\  feet  long,  are  not  so 
easily  handled  as  long  nozzles,  and  their  shape  is  not 
such  as  to  throw  the  most  efficient  jet.  It  is  always 
better  to  provide  swivel  handles  at  the  base  of  the 
play-pipe,  these  being  useful  not  only  in  holding  the 
nozzle,  but  also  in  carrying  the  hose  up  a  ladder  or  in 
shifting  hose.  The  best  form  of  nozzle  for  2^-inch 
hose  is  probably  that  designed  by  Mr.  Freeman,  and 
which  may  be  obtained  from  all  dealers  in  firemen's 
supplies,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Underwriter,"  or 
"  Factory  Mutual,"  pattern  of  play- pipe.  The  prin- 
cipal dimensions  of  such  play-pipes  are:  Length  over 
all,  30  inches;  diameter  at  base  of  play-pipe,  2j  inches; 
diameter  at  base  of  standard  nozzle,  if  inches;  diam- 
eter of  opening  of  nozzle,  \\  inches. 


136  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

It  is  best  to  make  the  play-pipes  and  nozzles  of 
polished  brass  or  gun-metal,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
have  the  body  of  the  play-pipe  wound  outside  with 
cord  to  secure  a  better  grip  and  to  prevent  coldness 
to  the  touch.  Rubber  and  cotton  fabric  play-pipes 
are  not  as  durable,  for  both  the  rubber  and  the  cotton 
are  liable  to  rot. 

When  a  ij-inch  hose  is  used  for  inside  protection 
the  fire-nozzle  opening  need  not  be  larger  than  J  inch. 

Beware  of  cheap  nozzles,  made  of  light  or  thin  brass, 
rough  on  the  inside,  and  which  easily  become  dented, 
battered,  or  bruised. 

10.  MONITOR  NOZZLES. 

A  very  excellent  device  for  fire  protection,  and  one 
which  seems  to  be  particularly  adapted  for  the  fire 
protection  of  the  stage,  the  fly-galleries,  and  the  rig- 
ging-loft, is  the  so-called  "  Monitor  Nozzle,"  invented 
by  Andrew  J.  Morse  of  Boston.  It  consists  substan- 
tially of  a  play-pipe  attached  to  a  revolving  chamber, 
and  provided  with  means  for  lowering  or  raising  the 
play-pipe,  thus  permitting  the  hose-pipe  to  be  inclined 
or  elevated  at  any  angle  desired,  and  to  be  turned 
into  any  direction  horizontally.  Such  device  would 
enable  the  attendant  to  cover  any  desired  point  with 
the  fire-stream. 

This  nozzle  is  similar  in  construction  and  operation 
to  the  large  and  very  powerful  nozzles  now  in  use  on 
the  recently  built  fire-boats  of  the  New  York  Fire 
Department.* 

*  Since  writing  the  above  I  learned  from  Messrs.  Morse  &  Son  that 
the  powerful  "  Monitor  nozzle,"  throwing  a  solid  5^- inch  stream,  with 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  137 

One  feature  of  great  importance  is  that  if  the 
Monitor  nozzle  is  once  pointed  in  any  particular  direc- 
tion, it  is  so  balanced  that  it  will  remain  in  this  posi- 
tion without  any  attention  whatever.  This  would 
enable  a  single  man  to  get  an  effective  stream  on  a 
fire,  and  while  he  leaves  it  under  operation,  to  go  to 
another  nozzle  and  thus  start  a  second  or  several  more 
streams,  or  else  to  give  the  fire-alarm,  or  to  attend  to 
other  duties  in  connection  with  the  saving  of  life  or 
property  during  a  theatre  fire.  Moreover,  the  neces- 
sary delay  incident  to  the  getting  out  of  the  fire-hose 
is  avoided,  and  thus  valuable  time  at  the  beginning  of 
a  fire  is  saved.  This,  as  experience  teaches,  often 
means  the  saving  of  the  building,  from  total  destruc- 
tion. Finally,  although  these  Monitor  nozzles  are 
expensive,  they  render  the  use  of  fire-hose,  which  at 
best  lasts  not  many  years,  unnecessary,  or  at  least  they 
re'duce  the  amount  of  fire-hose  needed  in  a  theatre. 

ii.  HOSE-RACKS. 

The  fire-hose  attached  to  each  fire-valve  must  be 
hung  up  or  supported  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be 
readily  run  out  without  any  twists  or  kinks,  and  quickly 
stretched  out  on  the  floor  ready  for  use.  There  are 
several  devices  in  the  market  which  accomplish  this. 

In  the  swinging  hose-reels  the  hose  is  reeled  around, 
while  in  the  Guibert  swinging  hose-rack  the  hose  is 

which  the  fireboat  "New  Yorker"  has  recently  been  fitted  up,  has 
been  manufactured  by  them,  and  is  of  the  same  construction  as  the 
2^-inch  "  Monitor  nozzle"  recommended  by  me  for  fire  protection  of 
theatre  stages. 


13$  THEATRE  FIR&S  AND   PANICS: 

folded  in  layers.  Either  device  may  be  attached  to  a 
wall-plate,  or  else  by  means  of  pipe  clamps  directly 
to  the  stand-pipe,  where  this  stands  free  and  a  few 
inches  out  from  the  wall.  In  the  racks  rubber-lined 
hose  is  more  difficult  to  put  than  unlined  hose,  and 
there  is  danger  of  the  hose  cracking  in  the  folds,  but 
for  unfolding  quickly  a  length  of  hose,  the  rack  is 
undoubtedly  superior  to  the  reel.  Sometimes  the 
hose  is  simply  hung  up  on  brass  hooks  or  pegs,  but 
this  is  a  crude  device*  and  involves  the  loss  of  much 
valuable  time  in  stretching  out  the  hose. 

A  better  device  is  the  saddle  rack,  designed  by  the 
Boston  •Woven  Hose  and  Rubber  Co.,  which  takes  up 
less  space  than  other  racks  and  permits  the  hose  to 
come  off  easily  and  without  catching. 

Other  special  devices  are  Schenck's  swinging  hose- 
reel  and  the  Peerless  stationary  and  swinging  reels. 
They  are  used  extensively  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but 
the  Schenck  hose-reel  may  be  obtained  in  Philadel- 
phia, Boston,  or  New  York  from  Eastern  agents. 

The  swinging  hose-racks,  so  largely  employed  for 
unlined  linen  hose,  are  made  of  iron  and  usually 
japanned  a  bright  red;  but  where  desired,  in  conspic- 
uous locations,  they  may  be  made  of  solid  brass, 
either  polished  or  nickel-plated.  If  intended  for 
rubber-lined  cotton  hose,  the  racks  must  be  made 
extra  strong  and  extra  deep. 

12.  HOSE-SPANNERS. 

At  each  fire- valve  there  should  be  provided  at  least 
one  hose-spanner.  Of  these  there  are  several  good 
patterns  in  the  market,  and  among  the  best  are  the 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION. 

Allen  and  the  Taber  patent  spanners  which  will  turn 
a  coupling  to  the  right  or  left  without  removing  the 
spanner  from  the  coupling. 

13.  AUTOMATIC-SPRINKLER  SYSTEM. 

We  have  in  the  foregoing  considered  one  essential 
form  of  fire  apparatus  for  the  protection  of  theatres, 
namely,  the  fire-pump,  with  its  direct  street  supply 
and  suction  connection  from  a  reserve  reservoir,  with 
its  connections  to  numerous  fire  stand-pipes  scattered 
over  the  theatre,  and  each  provided  with  a  number  of 
fire-valves  with  fire-couplings,  fire-hose,  play-pipes, 
hose-racks,  and  spanners,  or  with  Monitor  fire-nozzles. 
The  theatre  employes  should  be -entirely  familiar  with 
this  apparatus,  and  must  be  thoroughly  drilled  in  its 
use. 

We  must  next  consider  a  second  essential  system  of 
fire  protection  of  the  stage,  consisting  in  the  equip- 
ment of  an  automatic-sprinkler  system. 

The  automatic  sprinklers  which  are  now  so  univer- 
sally fitted  up  in  mill  buildings,  factories  of  all  kinds, 
and  in  warehouses  have  also  been  introduced  some 
years  ago  in  the  theatres  of  the  United  States,  and 
there  are  instances  on  record  where  the  timely  opening 
of  such  sprinklers  at  the  outbreak  of  a  theatre  fire 
saved  the  building  from  destruction. 

On  January  6,  1891,  fire  broke  out  at  the  Opera- 
House  at  Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  the  cause  being  a  front 
border  light  igniting  a  gauze  drop,  from  where  the 
flames  jumped  to  the  drop-curtain.  The  stage  was 
protected  with  Grinnell's  automatic  sprinklers,  under 


140  THEATRE  FIRES  AND  PANICS.- 

a  pressure  of  100  ll?s.  from  the  city  water-supply. 
Under  the  gridiron  and  just  above  the  drop-curtain 
six  sprinkler-heads  opened,  also  three  more  under  the 
roof,  and  five  more  under  the  stage  ventilator.  The 
fire  was  quenched  completely  by  fourteen  sprinklers. 

At  the  fire  at  the  Union  Square  Theatre  on  Feb. 
28,  1888,  the  Gray  sprinklers  saved  the  building. 

At  the  New  Theatre  Royal  at  Bolton,  England,  a 
gas  explosion  was  the  cause  of  a  fire  which  was  put 
out  by  automatic  sprinklers. 

In  November,  1882,  a  fire  was  extinguished  in  the 
Providence  Theatre  Comique  during  a  play,  by  auto- 
matic sprinklers,  with  so  little  injury,  even  to  the 
scenery,  that  the  performance  was  not  stopped. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  European  theatre  fitted  up 
with  automatic  sprinklers,  except  the  Theatre  Royal 
at  Bolton,  just  mentioned.  The  perforated-pipe  sys- 
tem and  a  water-curtain,  of  which  I  shall  speak  further 
on,  take  there  the  place  of  the  automatic  sprinklers. 

A  sprinkler  system  is  usually  installed  in  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  theatre,  viz.,  in  that  portion  of  the  building 
lying  back  of  the  proscenium-wall,  where  the  largest 
amount  of  highly  combustible  material  is  found,  and 
designated  as  follows:  Under  the  stage  roof,  under  the 
gridiron  or  rigging-loft,  under  all  fly-galleries,  and 
under  the  stage;  to  which  is  often  added  the  scene- 
docks,  the  property-room,  the  carpenter  and  painter's 
shop,  all  actors'  dressing-rooms,  the  rooms  for  the 
supers  and  the  ballets,  and  portions  of  the  basement. 

The  loft  over  the  auditorium  is  seldom  piped  for 
sprinklers  when  the  space  is  not  used,  nor  do  the 
rules  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  require  this. 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND    PREVENTION.  14! 

But  where  this  loft  is  used  for  storage,  particularly  of 
combustible  material,  it  is  better  to  install  sprinklers. 

As  is  well  known,  there  are  three  principal  sprinkler- 
pipe  systems,  namely,  (i)  the  ordinary  wet-pipe  sys- 
tem; (2)  the  non-freezing  wet-pipe  system;  and  (3) 
the  dry-pipe  system. 

The  ordinary  wet-pipe  system  is  the  one  in  most 
general  use.  It  is  open  only  to  two  objections,  first, 
that  in  buildings  not  constantly  or  sufficiently  heated 
it  is  liable  to  freeze,  and  thus  become  inoperative  just 
at  a  moment  when  wanted,  or  to  do  damage  by  water 
by  the  bursting  of  the  frozen  pipes;  second,  that  in 
the  event  of  a  sprinkler  head  becoming  defective  or 
damaged  and  opening  it  is  liable  to  cause  damage  to 
the  building  or  its  contents  by  flooding  same  with 
water.  It  may  be  stated  that  the  best  sprinkler  heads 
in  the  market  are  now  so  perfected  as  to  almost  pre- 
clude such  an  accidental  bursting  of  a  head. 

The  second  or  non-freezing  wet-pipe  system  has  an 
open  water-tank  and  a  small  air-tight  iron  tank  feed- 
ing the  pipes,  which  are  filled  with  a  non-freezing  and 
non-corrosive  liquid.  It  is  used  where  the  building  in 
which  the  sprinkler  system  is  installed  cannot  be 
heated.  The  two  tanks  are  connected  by  a  siphon, 
so  that  when  a  sprinkler  opens  the  system  is  fed  from 
the  water-tank.  This  system  is  open  to  the  objection 
of  possible  leakage,  and,  moreover,  a  possible  corro- 
sion of  the  sprinkler  heads. 

The  third  or  dry-pipe  system  is  extensively  advo- 
cated for  buildings  in  which  water-pipes  would  be 
liable  to  freezing.  There  are  several  modifications  of 
this  system,  the  pipes  in  one  system  being  filled  with 


142  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

compressed  air  instead  of  water.  In  all  of  these  there 
is  great  difficulty  in  making  the  system  absolutely  air- 
tight. Air-pumps  are  generally  provided  to  keep  the 
air-pressure  up,  and  the  system  must  be  frequently 
watched.  An  improved  dry-pipe  system  has,  in 
addition  to  the  sprinkler  pipes  and  heads,  an  inde- 
pendent air-pipe,  with  fusible  solder-plugs,  and  when 
one  of  these  is  operated  by  the  heat  of  a  fire  an 
automatic  valve  is  opened  admitting  the  water  from  the 
tank  to  the  pipes. 

In  theatres  the  temperature  can  be  at  all  times  kept 
up  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat  to  insure  the  non- 
freezing  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  system,  and  therefore 
it  is  the  rule  to  install  the  ordinary  wet-pipe  system. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  an  automatic-sprinkler  system 
to  extinguish  a  fire  in  its  incipiency,  through  the 
agency  of  the  fire  itself.  A  fire  if  started  opens  up 
only  a  limited  number  of  sprinkler  heads;  hence  there 
is  no  useless  waste  of  water,  no  unnecessary  damage, 
and  the  water  discharged  is  concentrated  in  the  spot 
just  where  wanted. 

A  wet-pipe  sprinkler  system  comprises  a  wooden 
Cooper's  tank,  placed  on  the  highest  part  of  the  stage 
roof,  and  of  a  capacity  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
sprinkler-heads.  The  installation  for  a  theatre  re- 
quires generally  from  100  to  300  sprinkler-heads, 
suitably  distributed;  several  i£,  2,  and  3  inch  risers;  a 
separate  shut-off  valve  for  each  floor  or  tier;  a  2\  to  3 
inch  riser  from  the  pump  to  the  tank;  a  watchman's 
automatic  fire-alarm  with  large  gongs — one  on  the 
stage,  the  other  on  the  outside  of  the  building;  a  low- 
water  alarm  with  indicator  in  the  pump  or  engine- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  143 

room ;  one  or  more  3-inch  pipes  running  from  the  main 
riser  to  the  outside  of  the  building,  to  form  a  fire- 
department  connection  (for  auxiliary  supply),  which  is 
provided  with  check-valve. 

It  is  essential  that  all  sprinkler  systems  should  have 
two  independent  approved  sources  of  supply,  of  which 
one  should  be  always  turned  on.  Speaking  generally, 
the  supply  to  the  sprinkler  system  may  be  either  from 
a  roof  tank  or  from  reservoir  pressure,  or  from  direct 
pressure  from  public  street  mains,  or  from  special 
sprinkler  fire-pumps,  or  from  fire-department  steam- 
engines  by  means  of  the  outside  fire-department  con- 
nections. 

The  following  resulting  combinations  for  a  double 
supply  are  usual,  viz. : 

1.  Primary  supply:     The  street  main. 
Secondary  "  An  elevated  fire-tank  on  the 

roof. 

2.  Primary  supply:     The  street  main. 
Secondary  "  An  automatic  steam  fire-pump 

with  steam  always  kept  on. 

3.  Primary  supply:     An  automatic  fire-pump. 
Secondary  "  A  roof  tank. 

4.  Primary  supply :      Roof  tank. 
Secondary  "  Rotary  pump. 

5.  Primary  supply :     A  roof  tank. 

Secondary  "  A  fire-department  connection. 

In  many  of  our  large  cities  the  street-main  supply 
is  out  of  the  question,  because  the  available  pressure 
is  insufficient.  While  it  is  perfectly  feasible  to  use  a 
rotary  or  direct-acting  fire-pump  to  supply  the  system, 


144  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

this  would,  in  theatres  where  one  fire-pump  is  already 
provided  to  supply  the  stand-pipe  fire-valves,  require 
a  second  pump  of  large  capacity,  for,  as  already  stated, 
the  fire-pump  described  heretofore  is  only  to  be  used 
for  the  fire-valves  and  hose-streams,  and  to  keep  the 
fire-tank  on  the  roof  filled.  It  is  therefore  usual  to 
choose  for  theatres  the  fifth  combination,  viz.,  to  sup- 
ply the  sprinkler  system  primarily  from  a  large  roof 
tank,  always  kept  full  of  water,  and  as  an  auxiliary  sup- 
ply to  provide  one  or  several  outside  fire-department 
connections,  which  enable  the  fire-department  in  case 
of  a  theatre  fire  to  connect  a  steam  fire-engine  and  to 
keep  the  sprinkler  system  on  the  stage  supplied  in  case 
the  roof  tank  has  discharged  its  whole  contents. 

As  regards  the  sprinkler-heads,  any  of  the  approved 
types,  such  as  the  Grinnell,  Neracher,  Walworth, 
Harkness,  Hill,  Kane,  Buell,  and  others,  may  be 
used,  if  satisfactory  to  and  approved  by  the  building 
or  fire  department  and  the  Board  of  Underwriters. 

Sprinkler-heads  must  be  made  of  non-corrodible 
metal,  and  the  fusible  solder  must  be  of  such  a  com- 
position that  it  will  be  released  at  155°  to  160°  Fahren- 
heit. The  solder-joint  of  all  sprinkler-heads  must  be 
so  located  that  when  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  fire  and 
about  to  be  released  no  water  or  its  immediate  chilling 
effect  can  reach  the  solder  and  prevent  it  from  open- 
ing. 

It  is  essential  that  the  fusible  solder-joint  should  be 
absolutely  reliable,  sensitive,  and  that  it  acts  quickly 
and  promptly. 

All  sprinklers  must  open  full  way,  and  each  sprinkler 
outlet  must  deliver  about  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  145 

minute  under  the  available  pressure.  Sprinkler-heads 
must  be  able  to  sustain  a  pressure  of  300  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  without  leaking,  and  they  must  be  capable 
of  operating  under  five  pounds  of  water-pressure. 

All  sprinkler-heads  are  provided  with  distributors 
or  deflectors,  which  divide  the  stream  of  water,  as  it 
strikes  them,  into  a  heavy  shower,  which  thoroughly 
drenches  the  fire.  These  deflectors  are  stationary  in 
some  sprinklers,  in  others  they  are  revolving  or  oscil- 
lating. The  sprinkler-heads  are  placed  either  above 
or  below  the  distributing  pipes,  the  former  position 
being  slightly  preferable  because  it  secures  perfect 
drainage  and  prevents  the  lodgment  of  rust,  dirt,  or 
sediment  in  the  sprinklers. 

The  ordinary  fusible  solder-joint,  which  opens  at 
155  to  1 60°  Fahrenheit,  is  not  adapted  for  boiler 
rooms  or  drying-rooms,  owing  to  the  sometimes  exces- 
sive heat  in  these  rooms,  and  if  automatic-sprinkler 
protection  is  desired  in  such  places,  a  different  alloy 
or  solder  having  a  higher  degree  of  fusibility  should 
be  used. 

The  number  of  sprinklers  necessary  for  an  equip- 
ment depends  upon  the  areas  to  be  protected. 

Sprinkler-heads  must  be  set  at  no  greater  distance 
than  10  feet  apart,  and  5  feet  away  from  walls  or  par- 
titions, so  that  they  protect  an  area  of  10  feet  in 
diameter.  The  rules  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  call  for  all  portions  of  a  building  to  be 
equipped  by  sprinklers,  unless  especially  exempted 
because  of  being  entirely  fire-proof  and  containing  only 
non-combustible  materials,  as  for  instance  the  loft  over 
the  auditorium ;  but  in  the  stage  portion  of  a  theatre 


146  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

it  is  important  that  the  space  between  ceiling  or  rigging- 
loft  and  stage  roof  be  also  protected.  The  largest 
number  of  sprinklers  in  a  theatre  is  required  to  protect 
the  rigging-loft  and  under  it  to  protect  the  stage. 

As  a  rule  the  piping  of  the  sprinkler  system  consists 
of  plain  standard  wrought-iron  pipes,  and  if  the  pipes 
are  constantly  kept  full  of  water  there  is  probably  not 
much  danger  of  their  rusting.  In  the  dry-pipe  system, 
however,  it  is  essential  that  the  supply-pipes  should 
be  rustproofed  or  galvanized,  and  where  economy  is 
no  object,  it  is  better  to  use  such  pipes  also  in  the 
wet-pipe  system. 

As  regards  sizes  for  the  sprinkler  risers,  distributing 
pipes,  and  branch-pipes  to  the  individual  sprinklers, 
the  following  rules  should  be  strictly  adhered  to: 

(a)  The  mains  from  the  tank  (or  from  the  outside 
connections)  must  be  of  a  capacity  to  supply  at  least 
50  per  cent  of  all  sprinklers  fed  in  the  largest  space 
enclosed  by  fire-walls,  but  where  such  a  space  would 
require  less  than  20  sprinklers  the  main  should  be 
capable  of  supplying  75  per  cent  of  them. 

(ft)  All  branch-pipes  supplying  more  than  five  and 
less  than  ten  sprinklers  shall  be  calculated  to  be  of  a 
capacity  to  supply  75  per  cent  of  the  sprinklers. 

(c)  Where  over  30  sprinklers  are  supplied  by  one 
branch,  it  must  have  a  capacity  of  supplying  50  per 
cent. 

(d)  No  pipe  smaller  than  |  inch  shall  be  used,  and 
only  one  sprinkler  is  to  be  fed  from  a  f-inch  pipe, 
provided  the  feed-pipe  is  not  longer  than  30  feet. 

(e)  The  piping  ma*y  be  calculated  from  the  following 
table,  which  gives  the  greatest  number  of  sprinkler- 


THEIR    CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  \tf 

heads  to  be  fed  from  pipes  of  different  diameter,  those 
in  column  I  being  given  by  Mr.  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury. 
those  in  column  II  being  the  requirement  of  the  New 
York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  those  in  column  III 
being  the  Philadelphia  Board  of  Underwriters'  require- 
ments for  mercantile  buildings  and  textile  mills,  and 
those  in  column  IV  for  special  risks,  including  theatres. 

TABLE   II. 

Size  of  Pipe  Number  of  Sprinkler-heads. 

in  Inches. 

I 

I 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

(theatres) 

I 

I 

I 

I 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

5 

6 

5 

10 

9 

10 

8 

18 

16 

18 

15 

28 

25 

28 

24 

46-48 

36 

46 

35 

70-78 

48 

70 

48 

95-H5 

64 

IOO 

63 

82 

IOO 

250 

IOO 

144 

ft  J  V 

over  250 

l«> 

4 

4 

5 
6 


All  main  branches  and  connections  must  be  so 
arranged  with  drip-pipes  and  drip-valves  that  they 
can  be  completely  emptied. 

Each  main  and  riser,  and  each  distributing  pipe  on 
each  floor,  is  to  be  provided  with  gate-valve,  placed  in 
the  case  of  the  mains  near  the  tank.  All  valves  to 
be  full  waterway  gate-valves,  with  telltale  indicators, 
and  all  valves  must  be  strapped  open  by  leather 
riveted  or  sealed  straps. 

All    exposed    sprinkler-heads    must    have    guards 


148  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

placed  around  them  to  protect  them  from  damage,  and 
this  in  theatres  must  be  particularly  observed  in  the 
case  of  sprinklers  placed  under  the  rigging-loft  and  the 
fly-galleries,  with  which  sprinklers  some  of  the  hoisting 
machinery  for  the  curtain  or  the  borders  and  drops 
may  come  in  contact.  Nothing  should  be  permitted 
to  be  hung  from  sprinkler-pipes,  nor  should  the 
sprinkler-heads  be  painted,  bronzed,  or  covered  with 
whitewash. 

The  roof  tank  supplying  the  sprinkler  system  should 
be  placed  on  the  highest  part  of  the  stage  roof,  and 
must  be  elevated  so  that  its  bottom  will  be  at  least  12 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  highest  sprinkler.  This 
location  of  the  fire-tank  on  the  roof  is  open  to  the 
objection  that  in  case  of  fire  the  tank  will  fall  with  the 
collapse  of  the  roof  or  the  bearing  walls  and  may  thus 
become  a  source  of  danger  to  the  firemen.  Where  it 
can  be  done  it  is  preferable  to  build  a  separate  tank 
tower. 

The  roof  tank  must  be  of  large  capacity,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  supply  the  sprinklers  opened  during  a  fire  for 
a  certain  length  of  time. 

Some  require  the  capacity  to  be  such  as  to  fully 
operate  for  one  hour  at  least  75  per  cent  of  all  sprink- 
lers located  in  the  largest  room  enclosed  by  fire-walls. 
For  instance,  if  there  are  50  sprinklers  over  the  stage  of 
a  theatre,  the  capacity  of  the  tank  would  figure  out  as 
follows:  50  X  }  X  i  cubic  foot  =  37.5  cubic  feet  per 
minute  or  37.5  X  60  =  2250  cubic  feet  per  hour  = 
16,875  gallons  tank  capacity. 

The  New  York  Fire  Underwriters'  rules  require 
the  tank  to  be  of  a  capacity  to  feed  for  fifteen  minutes 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  149 

50  per  cent  of  all  sprinklers  supplied  located  in  the 
largest  compartment  enclosed  by  fire-walls.  This, 
for  fifty  sprinklers  over  stage,  as  above,  would  re- 
quire 50  X  i  X  1=25  cubic  feet  per  minute  =  375 
cubic  feet  per  J-  hour,  or  a  tank  capacity  of  about  2812 
gallons. 

In  the  following  is  given  an  empirical  table  of  the 
capacity  and  dimensions  of  round  wooden  tanks,  for 
a  given  total  number  of  sprinklers  in  a  building. 

TABLE   III. 


Number  of 
Sprinklers. 

Capacity  of  Tank 
in  Gallons. 

Length  of  Tank       Diameter  of 
Staves.                     Tank. 

100 

2,500 

7  feet                   8  feet 

150 

3.500 

9 

9    ' 

200 

5,000 

10 

'                        IO     " 

300 

6,000 

10 

I              „   « 

500 

7,500 

10 

12     " 

800 

10,000 

12 

14    " 

1,000 

15,000 

12 

16    " 

1,200 

20,000 

15     '                   16    " 

The  rules  of  the  Philadelphia  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers require  the  capacity  of  the  elevated  tank  to  be 
as  follows: 

For  100  sprinklers  or  under,  not  less  than  3000 
gallons. 

For  100  to  200  sprinklers  or  under,  not  less  than 
5000  gallons. 

For  200  to  300  sprinklers,  or  under,  not  less  than 
7000  gallons. 

For  over  300  sprinklers,  special  sizes. 

The  Insurers'  Automatic  Fire  Extinguisher  Co.  of 
New  York  gives  the  following  table  of  relative  proper. 


ISO  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

tions  of  size  of  pipe,  capacity  of  tank,  and  number  of 
sprinklers : 

TABLE  IV. 

Size  of  Pipe.         Number  of  Sprinklers.  Size  of  Tank, 

finch                            i  212  gallons 

1  "                               3  424       " 
i*    "                              5  530      » 
i*    "                             9  959      " 

2  14  1,696        " 

4    "                             24  2,550       " 

3  "                             36  3,816       " 
3*    "                            49  5,194       " 


64  6,784 

100  10,000 

144  10,000 

196  10,000 

256  10,000 


At  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre  in  New  York  a  roof 
tank  of  6000  gallons  capacity  was  installed  for  a  total 
equipment  of  227  sprinklers,  distributed  as  follows: 
under  the  stage  roof  44,  under  the  gridiron  or  rigging- 
loft  50,  under  the  first  and  second  fly-galleries  12  and 
9  respectively,  under  the  stage  40,  and  for  the  dressing- 
rooms  72. 

In  the  new  Harrigan  Theatre  in  New  York  the 
capacity  of  the  roof  tank  was  4000  gallons  and  the 
total  number  of  sprinklers  installed  was  105. 

The  roof  tank  should  be  painted  and  either  frost- 
proofed  or  else  provided  with  steam  connection  to 
prevent  freezing  of  the  water.  It  should  have  a 
2-inch  overflow  and  a  ij-inch  emptying  pipe  carried 
to  the  roof.  The  pump  riser,  the  tank  main  or 
sprinkler  riser,  and  the  tank-emptying  pipe  must  all  be 
securely  protected  with  felting  or  other  non-conduct- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  l$l 

ing  material  against  freezing.  The  tank  should  also 
be  provided  with  cover  to  keep  the  dust  out  and  to 
retard  evaporation  of  the  water  by  exposure  to  the 
sun.  The  tank  should  also  be  fitted  up  with  a  sub- 
stantially built  outside  ladder,  permanently  fastened 
to  the  tank,  to  facilitate  inspections  and  cleaning. 
The  cleaning  of  the  tank  should  be  attended  to  at 
least  once  a  year.  The  tank  falling  main  or  sprinkler 
riser  should  enter  at  least  4  inches  above  the  tank 
bottom  to  avoid  drawing  the  sediment  which  settles 
at  the  tank  bottom  into  the  pipes.  In  winter  time 
the  steam  circulation  to  the  tank  should  be  turned  on. 

The  tank  falling  main  must  be  provided  with  a 
check-valve  and  shut-off  gate-valve.  On  the  line  of 
the  falling  main  is  placed  the  electric  attachment 
operating  the  automatic  fire-alarm.  It  consists  of  a 
special  fitting  connected  by  wiring  with  the  automatic 
alarm-bells,  and  so  arranged  that  when  water  starts  to 
flow  from  the  tank  through  this  fitting  to  any  sprinkler 
the  fire-alarm  gong  rings  automatically.  This  alarm 
can  be  readily  tested  at  any  time  by  opening  up  any 
drip-pipe  on  the  sprinkler  distribution  system. 

The  tank  is  filled,  as  already  described,  from  the 
theatre  fire-pump,  which  is  not  to  be  otherwise  con- 
nected with  the  sprinkler  system,  nor  are  the  sprink- 
ler risers  to  be  used  for  attaching  fire-valves.  Neither 
must  any  water  be  drawn  from  the  sprinkler  tank  for 
any  other  purpose. 

The  tank  should  be  fitted  up  with  a  low-water  alarm, 
and  with  a  float  indicator  which  always  shows  in  the 
engine-room  the  height  of  water  in  the  tank. 

The  watchman's  alarm   and  the  low- water  alarm 


152  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

should  be  tested  often,  and  the  outside  alarm-gong 
must  be  suitably  protected  against  the  weather. 

The  fire-department  connection  to  the  sprinkler 
system,  located  in  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  outside 
of  the  building,  must  be  of  regulation  fire-department 
size,  and  plainly  marked.  The  pipe  leading  from  it 
should  be  provided  in  the  building  with  approved 
check-valve.  The  fire-department  connection  should 
be  not  less  than  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  coupling 
and  cap,  and  there  should  be  one  such  pipe  for  every 
50  sprinklers  in  the  building,  which  may  open  at  any 
one  fire. 

In  case  a  fire-pump  should  be  preferred  to  an  out- 
side connection,  it  should  have  a  capacity  of  at  least 
two  fire-streams  or  500  gallons  per  minute,  and  it 
should  be  arranged  to  operate  automatically  and  to 
start  instantly  upon  the  opening  of  a  sprinkler-head. 
If  the  pump  draws  from  a  suction-reservoir,  its  capacity 
should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  pump  supplied  during 
at  least  one  hour's  full  working  capacity,  which  would 
make  it  equal  to  500  X  60  =  30,000  gallons.  The 
pump  should  be  tested  once  a  week,  and  should  be 
located  so  as  to  be  easy  of  access  and  free  from  the 
danger  of  fire. 

In  any  case,  wherever  a  wet-sprinkler  system  is 
installed,  strict  precautions  should  be  taken  against 
the  pipes  freezing,  as  in  the  event  of  a  pipe  bursting 
serious  damage  to  the  scenic  decorations  would  result. 
As  far  as  practicable,  every  sprinkler  system  should  be 
tested  periodically.  This  test  should  include  some  of 
the  sprinkler-heads  to  make  sure  that  they  have  not 
become  inoperative  from  corrosion  or  sediment.  The 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  I  S3 

automatic  alarm  of  the  sprinkler  system  should  also  be 
regularly  tested,  and  the  batteries,  the  wiring,  etc,, 
inspected. 

14.  PERFORATED-PIPE  SYSTEM. 

In  some  instances  the  stage  of  a  theatre  is  fitted  up 
with  an  open-sprinkler  system,  or  else  with  a  perfo- 
rated-pipe system,  in  place  of  the  automatic  sprinklers. 
In  both  cases  the  pipe  system  is  empty  except  when  in 
action,  the  water,  whether  supplied  from  direct  city 
pressure  or  from  one  or  several  elevated  reservoirs, 
being  held  back  by  a  valve,  which  is  either  operated  by 
hand  or  else  fastened  by  a  hemp  cord,  which  is  supposed 
to  burn  at  the  outbreak  of  a  fire,  thereby  releasing  the 
valve.  The  perforated-pipe  system  is  arranged  near 
and  above  the  rigging-loft,  and  consists  of  a  number 
of  sections  or  rows  of  pipes,  each  controlled  by  a  sep- 
arate valve  or  shut-off  and  fed  from  a  large  cross  main. 
The  valves  are  all  operated  from  one  point  on  the 
stage,  and  the  attendant  may  put  in  operation  all  the 
lines  simultaneously,  or  else  only. one  or  several  lines 
separately,  whereby  the  stage  and  stage-scenery  is 
deluged  at  the  place  where  the  fire  burns. 

The  open-sprinkler  system  is  similar  to,  but  perhaps 
more  effective  in  action  than,  the  perforated-pipe  sys- 
tem. In  some  cases  large  sizes  of  revolving  sprinkling 
nozzles  are  fitted  up,  and  prove  efficient  fire-extin- 
guishers, if  one  could  but  rely  on  the  water  being 
turned  on  promptly. 

The  stages  in  many  French  and  German  theatres 
are  protected  by  perforated-pipe  systems,  whereas  the 
English  theatres  have  neither  automatic  sprinklers  nor 


1$4  THEATRE  FIRES  AND 

perforated  pipes,  because  there  being  until  quite 
recently  no  practical  experience  with  the  good  results 
obtained  by  the  former  as  in  this  country,  these  are 
considered  unreliable,  and  also  because  the  latter  are 
looked  upon  as  dangerous  to  property,  although  such 
an  experienced  fireman  as  Capt.  Shaw  of  the  London 
Fire  Brigade  concedes  that  "  such  arrangements 
would  make  the  safety  of  an  audience  in  case  of  fire 
absolutely  and  completely  certain." 

One  of  the  Munich  Royal  Theatres  was  the  first 
German  theatre  to  be  fitted  up  on  a  large  scale  with 
perforated  sprinkling  pipes,  and  in  this  theatre,  as  well 
as  in  the  large  new  opera-house  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  what  threatened  to  become  serious  conflagra- 
tions have  been  put  out  by  this  apparatus.  On  Feb. 
loth,  1 88 1,  in  the  third  act  of  the  opera  "  The 
Jewess,"  in  the  Frankfort-on-the-Main  new  opera- 
house,  a  gauze  border  caught  fire  from  the  border- 
lights.  The  iron  curtain  was  at  once  lowered  and  one 
of  the  valves  operating  the  open  pipe-sprinkler  system 
was  opened,  extinguishing  the  fire  in  a  few  minutes, 
so  that  after  an  intermission  of  only  ten  minutes  the 
play  could  proceed. 

The  new  Boston  fire  law  requires  "  the  proscenium- 
opening  of  every  theatre  to  be  provided  with  a  2^-inch 
perforated  iron  pipe  or  equivalent  arrangement  of 
automatic  or  open  sprinklers,  so  constructed  as  to  form 
when  in  operation  a  complete  water-curtain  for  the  en- 
tire proscenium  opening.  There  shall  be  for  the  rest  of 
the  stage  a  complete  system  of  fire  apparatus  and 
perforated  iron  pipes,  automatic  or  open  sprinklers." 

It  seems  unfortunate  that  this  law  should  specify  the 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  1 55 

perforated  pipe  to  be  of  iron.  It  is  well  known  that 
plain  wrought-iron  pipe  will  soon  rust  if  kept  dry  and 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  perforations  in 
the  pipe  would  soon  stop  up  with  rust,  dust,  or  sedi- 
ment, and  become  inoperative. 

The  only  available  material  for  perforated-pipe  sys- 
tems is  brass  or,  better,  copper  pipe,  and  the  systems 
installed  in  German  theatres  always  consist  of  this 
material. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  New  York  theatre  fitted  up 
with  perforated  pipes,  whereas  all  the  new  theatres 
and  many  of  the  older  ones  have  an  automatic-sprinkler 
system.  Where  requirements  of  economy  do  not 
prevent  it,  I  should  favor  the  instalment,  in  addition 
to  the  automatic-sprinkler  system,  of  a  perforated  pipe 
at  the  stage  side  of  the  proscenium-opening.  This, 
when  in  action,  would  form  an  efficient  water-curtain, 
and  thus  would  be  an  additional  protection  of  the  fire- 
proof iron  or  asbestos  curtain,  and  thereby  of  the 
theatre  audience  in  case  of  a  stage  fire. 

15.  FIRE-PAILS. 

In  addition  to  the  automatic  steam  fire-pump  and 
the  automatic-sprinkler  system  every  theatre  should 
be  provided  with  a  large  number  of  fire-pails  or  fire- 
buckets.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  more  fires  are 
put  out  annually  by  hand-buckets  than  by  any  other 
fire-extinguishing  appliance.  One  bucket  of  water 
used  at  the  proper  moment,  during  the  first  minute  of 
a  fire  just  started,  is  of  more  value  than  the  largest 
fire-pump  half  an  hour  later. 

Fire-pails,   therefore,   constitute  in  theatres   as  in 


I  $6  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

other  buildings  the  most  useful  and  most  effective  of 
all  interior  non-automatic  fire  apparatus  to  subdue  a 
local  fire  before  the  latter  has  gained  any  headway. 
Even  in  the  hands  of  the  most  inexperienced  em- 
ploye's, such  fire-pails  are  a  great  protection  and 
security. 

A  theatre  requires  a  very  ample  supply  of  fire- 
buckets,  judiciously  distributed.  The  largest  number 
should  be  placed  on  the  stage,  handy  and  ready  for 
any  emergency,  but  there  should  also  be  rows  of  pails 
in  the  fly-galleries,  in  the  rigging-loft,  in  the  corridors 
adjoining  the  actors'  dressing-rooms,  under  the  stage, 
in  the  engine-room,  and  likewise  in  the  various  divi- 
sions of  the  auditorium. 

Fire-pails  should  not  be  kept  on  the  floor,  where  they 
are  liable  to  be  overturned,  but  should  be  either  hung 
on  hooks  or  placed  on  shelves.  They  should  be  marked 

II  Fire-pails  "  or  "  for  fire  only,"  and  should  be  dis- 
tinguished by  being  painted  a  bright-red  color,  to  avoid 
their  being  used  for  other  purposes  and  perhaps  found 
missing  or  empty  in  case  they  are  needed. 

Fire-pails  must  always  be  kept  full  of  water,  which 
evaporates  rapidly.  The  practice  of  putting  covers  on 
fire-pails  to  prevent  evaporation  is  of  doubtful  ex- 
pediency, as  it  renders  the  daily  inspection  of  the  fire- 
pails  more  difficult.  There  should  be  a  penalty 
enforced  for  the  use  of  the  fire-pails  for  other  purposes. 

Fire-pails  are  made  of  many  different  materials. 
Besides  the  common  wooden  pail  or  bucket,  there  are 
galvanized-iron  pails,  paper  pails  and  rubber  pails, 
canvas,  leather,  indurated  fibre,  and  even  glass  pails. 

All  fire-pails,  of  whatever  material,  should  be  durable 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  I $7 

and  strong,  light,  yet  of  good  size,  holding  about 
eight  to  ten  quarts  of  water.  Wooden  pails  deteri- 
orate rapidly,  and  if  accidentally  allowed  to  become 
dry,  they  warp  and  fall  rapidly  to  pieces.  Galvanized 
iron  pails  are  better  than  wooden  pails,  but  are  subject 
to  corrosion.  Leather  buckets,  copper  riveted  and 
enamel  painted  on  the  inside,  are  very  good  but  expen- 
sive. Canvas  buckets  are  liable  to  leak,  and  are  not 
used  much.  Neither  the  rubber  nor  the  paper  pails 
are  very  durable.  In  practical  use  the  indurated-fibre 
pail  has  been  found  superior  to  all  those  named  so  far. 
It  is  usually  made  with  a  round  bottom  and  set  on 
special  shelves  with  suitable  holes.  This  form  of  pail 
has  the  advantage  that  the  pail  cannot  be  taken  away 
and  used  for  other  purposes.  The  objection  made 
against  the  round-bottomed  pail  that  it  cannot  be  set 
on  the  floor  and  used  to  supply  hand  force-pumps,  is 
of  no  importance  when  the  larger  casks  of  water  are 
provided.  It  is  claimed  for  the  indurated-fibre  pail 
that  it  will  hold  a  non-freezing  solution  (in  the  case  of 
unheated  rooms)  which  would  corrode  metal  pails. 

Three  new  forms  of  fire  or  "  insurance"  pails  require 
special  attention.  The  Harkness  insurance  pail  is 
made  of  heavy,  galvanized  iron,  of  ten  quarts  capacity, 
and  it  is  filled  with  a  non-freezing  fire-extinguishing 
liquid.  To  prevent  its  evaporation  a  glass  cover  is 
put  over  the  liquid,  and  to  protect  the  glass  from 
breakage  a  perforated  iron  top  is  placed  over  the 
same,  with  a  handle  which  is  to  be  used  to  break  the 
glass.  The  claim  is  made  for  this  pail,  that  its  con- 
tents do  not  freeze,  corrode,  evaporate,  or  deteriorate. 

The    Worcester    chemical    compartment    fire-pail 


I5&  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

(Lincoln's  patent)  is  made  of  heavy  galvanized  iron, 
painted  inside  and  outside.  The  chemicals  are  held  in 
a  dry  powder  form  in  a  compartment  in  the  cover, 
which  is  hermetically  sealed  at  the  top  and  bottom 
with  heavy  tin-foil.  By  breaking  the  tin-foil  in  the 
cover  the  chemical  is  precipitated  into  the  water, 
forming  a  strong  and  fresh  fire-extinguishing  solution. 

The  chemicals  of  this  fire-pail  are  therefore  held 
in  a  dry  state  until  required,  and  cannot  deteriorate, 
which  is  claimed  as  the  chief  advantage  of  this  type 
of  pail. 

Another  chemical  fire-pail,  made  in  Worcester, 
Mass.,  under  the  Macomber  patent,  is  a  glass  pail 
encased  in  a  tin  jacket.  Glass  was  used,  as  it  was 
feared  that  the  chemical  liquid  might  attack  a  galva- 
nized-iron  pail.  This  pail  contains  two  gallons  of  a 
chemical  non-freezing  fire-extinguishing  liquid,  and  is 
hermetically  sealed  by  a  soft  tin-foil  cover  to  prevent 
evaporation. 

As  to  the  number  of  fire-pails  required  for  a  thea- 
tre, it  is  usual  in  other  buildings  to  estimate  five  pails 
for  5000  square  feet  or  less  of  area,  and  to  add  one 
pail  for  each  additional  1000  square  feet;  but  for 
theatres  this  allowance,  at  least  for  the  stage,  is  hardly 
sufficient.  The  New  York  Theatre  Law  requires  four 
casks  of  water  on  the  stage  and  at  least  two  pails  to 
each  cask,  making  eight  pails.  There  would,  however, 
be  no  harm  in  doubling  this  allowance.  The  equip- 
ment of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre  comprised  forty- 
eight  galvanized-iron  fire-pails  and  eighteen  insurance 
pails. 


THEIR  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION.         I $9 

16.  CASKS. 

Casks  or  large  barrels,  containing  about  40  or  50 
gallons  of  water,  should  be  kept  in  readiness  on  the 
stage,  and  it  would  be  well  to  have  some  of  these  also 
in  the  under-stage,  in  the  fly-galleries,  and  in  the 
rigging-loft.  There  should  be  at  least  four  casks  on 
the  stage,  one  in  each  fly-gallery  on  each  side  of  the 
stage,  and  two  in  the  rigging-loft.  These  casks  should 
be  kept  filled  with  water  at  all  times,  and  they  are 
useful  in  case  the  fire-buckets  are  employed  to  extin- 
guish a  fire,  and  likewise  as  a  source  of  supply  for 
hand  force-pumps. 

For  filling  the  casks  by  small  hose,  and  also  for 
refilling  the  fire-pails,  fire  stand-pipes  are  sometimes 
provided  with  hose  bibbs  located  under  each  fire-valve 
and  provided  with  detachable  lever  handles. 

17.  PORTABLE  FIRE-EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS. 

In  addition  to  the  hand  fire-buckets  it  is  desirable 
to  have  on  the  stage  and  in  the  auditorium  a  number 
of  portable  fire-extinguishers.  Sometimes  common 
hand  force-pumps  are  used,  but  much  better  than  these 
are  the  fire-extinguishers  working  under  pressure.  Of 
these  there  are  a  great  many  types,  which  may  be 
subdivided  into  chemical  and  pneumatic  extinguishers, 
the  former  being  loaded  with  chemicals  generating 
carbonic-acid  gas,  while  the  latter  are  charged  with 
compressed  air. 

The  well-known  Babcock  and  the  Champion  fire- 
extinguishers,  both  manufactured  by  the  same  firm, 


l6o  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

are  examples  of  chemical  fire-extinguishers,  and  throw 
a  commingled  stream  of  water  and  carbonic-acid  gas. 
They  are  strongly  made  of  heavy  copper,  in  various 
sizes  and  capacities,  ranging  from  a  small  portable 
hand  apparatus  to  large  chemical  village  engines. 

The  copper  cylinder  of  the  apparatus  holds  a  solution 
of  bicarbonate  of  sodium  in  water  and  also  a  sealed 
bottle  of  sulphuric  acid.  By  turning  a  hand-wheel  at 
the  top  of  the  extinguisher  the  bottle  is  broken,  and 
immediately  the  two  fluids  mix,  generating  carbonic- 
acid  gas. 

The  Harkness  and  the  Miller  fire-extinguishers  are 
examples  of  the  pneumatic  extinguishers.  In  these 
the  copper  vessels  hold  a  non-freezing  fire-extinguish- 
ing liquid  compound,  and  are  charged  with  compressed 
air  under  a  high  pressure.  By  opening  a  lever  cock 
the  apparatus  is  put  in  operation,  and  no  gas  is  gen- 
erated until  the  liquid  strikes  the  fire. 

The  advantage  of  the  pneumatic  extinguishers  con- 
sist in  their  using  no  acids,  which  often  do  much 
damage  when  the  apparatus  is  in  operation.  They  are 
also  safer  and  perhaps  more  easily  handled  than  the 
chemical  extinguishers. 

All  such  apparatus  should  be  located  conveniently 
and  within  easy  reach.  The  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre 
was  fitted  up  with  fifteen  portable  extinguishers 
located  as  follows :  One  on  each  side  of  the  stage,  four 
in  the  fly-galleries,  two  in  the  rigging-loft,  two  in  the 
orchestra,  two  in  the  balcony,  two  in  the  gallery,  and 
one  in  the  space  under  the  stage. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the  chemical  extin- 
guishers be  refilled  as  soon  as  possible  after  use,  and 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  l6l 

it  is  also  well  to  have  the  apparatus  tested  or  inspected 
at  intervals,  as  some  of  the  working  parts  may  have 
become  rusted  up. 

Of  hand-grenades  as  portable  fire-extinguishers  I 
will  not  speak,  as  they  are  inferior  to  both  fire-pails 
and  chemical  or  pneumatic  extinguishers. 

1 8.  STEAM- JETS. 

Although  steam  has  not  in  practice  been  used  to  any 
great  extent  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes,  it  may 
prove  in  many  cases  very  useful,  particularly  in  con- 
cealed spaces  or  cramped  corners  not  easily  reached, 
as  for  instance  up  in  the  rigging- loft.  It  is  feasible  to 
provide  in  such  places  a  few  steam-nozzles,  supplied 
from  steam-pipes  controlled  by  valves  at  the  stage. 
The  use  of  steam  for  extinguishing  purposes  on  the 
stage,  or  in  corridors  or  stairs,  is  a  very  doubtful 
measure,  as  the  escaping  steam  would  have  a  tendency 
to  increase  the  confusion  and  panic  during  a  fire. 

19.  SAND. 

It  is  to  be  recommended  to  keep  on  the  stage  boxes 
of  sand  to  be  used  for  the  extinguishment  of  oil  fires, 
in  case  an  oil-lamp,  used  in  the  representation  of  the 
play,  should  explode  or  catch  fire  on  the  stage. 

20.  FIRE-AXES  AND  FIRE-HOOKS. 

Every  theatre  should  be  supplied  with  a  liberal  out- 
fit of  fire-axes  with  pick  heads,  polished  axe-brackets, 
or  fire-hooks  on  poles  of  various  lengths  to  pull  down 
burning  scenery,  and  knives  or  hatchets  in  the  fly- 


1 62  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

galleries  and   rigging-loft  to  cut  down  the  ropes  of 
hanging  scenery. 

The  fire-hooks  are,  of  course,  to  be  placed  only  on 
the  stage,  and  it  is  usual  to  provide  one  six-foot,  one 
ten-foot,  one  fifteen-foot,  and  one  twenty-foot  fire- 
hook  pole.  The  axes  should  be  placed  on  polished 
boards  at  every  point  where  a  portable  extinguisher  is 
placed.  In  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre  there  are  to  be 
found  fifteen  sets  of  these,  distributed  wherever  fire 
danger  is  specially  apprehended.  The  New  York 
Building  Law  calls  for  "  at  least  four  axes  to  be  placed 
on  each  tier  on  the  stage  and  in  the  auditorium." 

21.  MINOR  FIRE-EXTINGUISHING  DEVICES. 

It  is,  finally,  necessary  to  keep  in  readiness  on  the 
stage  during  each  performance  some  damp  or  sl'^htly 
wet  blankets  to  save  actresses  or  ballet-girls  whose 
dresses  may  have  caught  fire  from  the  footlights  or  any 
other  cause.  Likewise  should  there  be  wet  swabs  or 
sponges  attached  to  long  poles  to  put  out  sparks  from 
fireworks  lodging  in  the  scenery,  particularly  in  the 
hanging  borders.  Asbestos  sheets  and  asbestos  gloves 
may  also  be  provided  for  fire  protection. 

22.  LIFE-SAVING  APPLIANCES. 

In  all  theatres  which  are  not  strictly  fire-proof 
there  should  be  provided  and  kept  in  readiness  in  the 
theatre-manager's  office,  or  somewhere  else  near  the 
main  entrance,  a  large  jumping-net,  to  save  people 
whose  retreat  has  been  cut  off  by  fire  or  smoke. 
Rope  and  pulley  fire-escapes  at  some  of  the  upper 
windows,  a  few  scaling-ladders,  and  a  long  extension- 


THEIR   CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION.  163 

ladder  would  also  prove  valuable  apparatus  to  have  on 
hand  in  case  of  a  theatre-fire  catastrophe. 

23.  FIRE-ALARM  AND  WATCHMAN'S  CLOCK. 

In  order  to  control  the  efficiency  of  the  night-watch- 
man it  is  advisable  to  fit  up  in  each  theatre  a  watch- 
man's clock  with  electro-magnetic  circuit. 

Every  theatre  should  also  have  a  system  of  fire- 
alarm  connected  with  the  nearest  engine-house  of  the 
city  fire-department.  The  alarm  system  may  consist 
either  in  a  series  of  thermostats  or  heat  detectors,  set 
to  operate  at  a  certain  degree  of  temperature,  when 
an  electric  circuit  is  completed  which  rings  the  alarm- 
gong;  or  else  in  a  series  of  small  pipes,  closed  up  with 
fusible  solder,  which  open  at  a  temperature  of  about 
140°  to  150°  F.,  which  pipes  are  filled  with  compressed 
air.  The  melting  of  the  fusible  plug  causes  the  com- 
pressed air  to  escape,  whereby  a  diaphragm  is  operated, 
giving  the  alarm. 

24.  WATER-SUPPLY  FOR  HOUSE  SERVICE. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  fire  equipment  of 
a  theatre  makes  no  mention  of  the  water-service 
needed  for  the  plumbing  appliances  in  a  theatre. 
Whatever  is  needed  in  this  line  should,  in  my  judg- 
ment, be  entirely  separate  from  the  fire-service. 

The  plumbing  in  some  of  our  modern  theatres  is 
quite  elaborate,  consisting  of^a  number  of  toilet- 
rooms  for  the  use  of  the  public ;  toilet-rooms  for  the 
theatre-manager,  the  stage  employes,  for  the  actors, 
actresses,  and  supers;  lavatories  in  all  the  actors' 


164  THEATRE  FIRES  AND   PANICS: 

dressing-rooms;  house-tanks  and  house-pumps;  hot- 
water  tanks ;  etc. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  all  plumbing  be 
arranged  in  a  sanitary  manner,  and  the  general  rules 
and  principles  of  plumbing  and  house  drainage,  which 
the  author  has  elaborately  discussed  elsewhere,*  should 
be  applied  to  theatres  the  same  as  to  other  classes  of 
buildings. 

*  See  the  author's  numerous  works  on  Plumbing,  House  Drainage, 
Sewage  Disposal,  etc. 


LITERATURE  ON   THEATRES.* 


I.  BOOKS. 

ENGLISH. 

BIRKMIRE,  WM.  H. — "  The  Planning  and  Construction  of 
American  Theatres."  New  York,  1896. 

BUCKLE,  JAMES  GEO. — "  Theatre  Construction  and  Main- 
tenance." London,  1888. 

GERHARD,  WM.  PAUL. — "Theatre  Fires  and  Panics:  their 
Causes  and  Prevention."  New  York,  1896. 

SACHS,  EDWIN  O.,  AND  WOODROW,  ERNEST  A.  E. — 
"  Modern  Opera-houses  and  Theatres."  3  vols.  Vol.  I. 
Published  May,  1896.  London. 

SAUNDERS,  GEO. — "  Treatise  on  Theatres/'     1790. 

SHAW,  CAPT.  EYRE  M.— "  Fire  in  Theatres."  Second 
edition.  London,  1889. 

GERMAN. 

"Handbuch    d.  Architektur."      Theil   III,   Bd.   6;   Theil 

IV,  Bd.  6.     (Not  yet  published.) 
"Baukunde  des  Architekten."     Bd.  I.  2  ;  Bd.  II. 
BUSING,    PROF.    F.    W.— "  Die   Sicherheit   in   Theatern." 

Bd.  6.     Heft  2  des  Handbuchs  d.  Hygiene.     Jena,  1894. 

*The  list  given  does  not  pretend  to  be  complete,  and  the  compiler 
will  esteem  it  a  favor  if  interested  readers  will  call  his  attention  to 
any  omissions  or  inaccuracies. 

165 


1 66  LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES. 

CAVOS,  A. — "  Ueber  die  Einrichtung  von  Theater-Gebau- 
den."     Leipsic,  1849. 

"Der   Wieder-Aufbau   d.    Stadt-Theaters    zu    Riga." 

Riga,  1888. 

DOEHRING,    W. — "  Handbuch    des    Feuer-L6sch-und-Ret- 
tungswesens."     Berlin,  1881.     Mit  Atlas. 

"  Das  Feuer-Loeschwesen  Berlins."     Berlin,  1881. 
FISCHER,  HERM. — "  Fortschritte  der  Architektur."     Heft  5. 
"  Heizung,  Liiftung  u.  Beleuchtung  der  Theater."  Darm- 
stadt, 1894. 

FLECK,  PROF.  D.  H. — "  Ueber  Flammensicherheit  u.  Dar- 

stellung  flammensicherer  Gegenstande."     Dresden,  1882. 

FOLSCH,  AUG. — "  Theater-Brande  und  die  zur  Verhiitung 

derselben  erforderlichen  Schutzmassregeln."     Hamburg, 

1878. 

"  Erganzungsheft  dazu."     Hamburg,  1882. 
"  Erinnerungen    aus    d.    Leben    eines    Technikers. — 

Theater  Brande."     Hamburg,  1889. 

GILARDONE,  FRANZ. — "  Handbuch  des  Theater-L6sch-und 
Rettungswesens."  3  vols.  Strassburg  and  Hagenau 
1882,  1884. 

"Zum  Brand  der  Komischen  Oper  in  Paris."     Hag- 
enau, 1887. 

"  Der  Theater-Brand  zu  Exeter."     Hagenau,  1888. 
HASENAUER,    CARL    FREIHERR   VON. — "  Hofburg-Theater, 
das  k.  k.,  in  Wien."     1889. 

"  Hoftheater,  das  neue,  zu  Dresden." 
HONIG,  FRITZ. — "  Loeschen  und  Retten."     Koln,  1894. 
HUDE,    H.    v.    d.,    UND    J.    HENNICKE. — "  Das   Lessing- 

Theater  in  Berlin."     1889. 
KLASEN,    LUDWIG. — "  Grundriss-Vorbilder  von  Gebauden 

aller  Art."     Abth.  VIII.     Leipsic,  1884. 
LANDHAUS. — "  Ueber  Akustik  und  Katakustik  der  Theater. " 
LANGHAUS,  C.  F. — "Das  Stadt-Theater  in  Leipzig." 
"  Das  Victoria  Theater  in  Berlin." 


LITERATURE   ON    THEATRES.  l6/ 

LINDNER,  DR.  GUSTAV. — "Das  Feuer."     Briinn,  1881. 
LUCAE,     R.— "Das     Opernhaus     zu     Frankfurt     a.    M." 

Herausgegeben  von  Giesenberg  und  Becker.     1883. 
MARCH,    OTTO. — "  Das    Stadt.    Spiel-    und    Festhaus    zu 
Worms."     Berlin,  1890. 
"  Das    Stadtische    Spiel-  und    Festhaus    zu    Worms." 

Vortrag,  1890. 

NULL,  VAN  DER,  UND  SiccARDSBURG. — "  Das  k.  k.  Hof- 
Opernhaus  in  Wien." 

"  Das  neue  Opernhaus  in  Wien."     1879. 
RUNGE,  G. — "  Das  neue  Opernhaus.     (Academy  of  Music)," 

Philadelphia,  1882. 
SCHINKEL,     KARL      FRIEDR.  — "  Dekorationen     in     den 

Konigl.     Hof-Theatern  zu  Berlin."     1874. 
SEMPER,     G. — "  Das    Konigl.     Hoftheater    in    Dresden." 
Brunswick,  1849. 

"  Das  (alte)  Konigl.  Hof-Theater  in  Dresden." 
STAUDE,  GUSTAV.—"  Das  Stadt-Theater  zu  Halle."    1886. 

Halle  a.  S. 
STRACK,  J.  H.— "  Das   alt-griechische   Theater-Gebaude." 

Potsdam,  1843. 
STURMHOFEL,  A. — "  Szene  der  Alten  und  Biihne  der  Neu- 

zeit."     Berlin,  1889. 
STURMHOEFEL,    A. — "Akustik   des   Baumeisters."      Berlin^ 

1894. 

TIETZ,  E. — "  Das  Kroll'sche  Etablissement  in  Berlin." 
TITZ. — "  Das  Wallner-Theater  und  das  Viktoria-Theater  in 

Berlin." 

VENERAND,  W.— "Asbest  und  Feuerschutz."     Wien,  1886. 
WIESELER,  F.  J.  A. — "  Theater-Gebaude  bei  den  Griechen 
und  Romern."     Gottingen,  1851. 


1 68  LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES. 

FRENCH. 

CHENEVIER,  P. — "  L'Incendie  de  1'Opera-Comique  de  Paris, 

et  le  Theatre  de  Surete."     Paris,  1888. 
CONTANT,  C. — "  Parallele   des   Principaux   Theatres    Mo- 

dernes  de  1'Europe  et  des  Machines  Theatrales."     Paris, 

1820. 
DALY   ET    DAVIOUD. — "  Les    Theatres    de    la    Place    du 

Chatelet."     Paris,  1874. 
GARNIER,  CHAS. — "  Le    Nouvel  Opera   de   Paris."     Paris, 

1875-81. 

GARNIER. — "  Le  Theatre."     Paris,  1871. 
GOSSET,  A. — "  Traite   de  la  Construction  des  Theatres." 

Paris,  Baudry  &  Co.,  1886. 
MOYNET,  GEORGES. — "  Trues  et  Decors. — La  Machinerie 

Theatrale."     Paris.     (About  1892.) 

MOYNET,  M.   J. — "  L'Envers  du  Theatre."     Paris,  1888. 
PETIT,  MAXIME. — "  Les  Grands  Incendies."     Paris,  1882. 
NUITTER. — "  Le  Nouvel  Opera."    Paris,  Librairie  Hachette, 

1875- 

SAUVAGEOT,  L.,  "  Considerations  sur   la  Construction  des 
Theatres."     Paris,  1877. 

ITALIAN. 

DONGHI,  DANIELE.— "  Sulla  Sicurezza  dei  Teatri  in  Caso 
d'Incendio."     Torino,  1888. 

II.     PAMPHLETS. 

GERHARD,  WM.  PAUL. — "  Theatre   Fire  Catastrophes   and 
their  Prevention."     New  York,  1894. 

"The    Essential   Conditions   of   Safety  in   Theatres." 

New  York,  1894. 
"The  Water-service  and  Fire  Protection  of  Theatres." 

New  York,  1894. 

HEXAMER,  JOHN  C. — "  On   the    Prevention    of    Fires    in 
Theatres."      Journal  of  Franklin  Institute,  August,  1882. 


LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES.  169 

HEXAMER,  JOHN  C.— "  The  Construction  and  Interior 
Arrangement  of  Buildings  designed  to  be  used  as  Thea- 
tres." July,  1892. 

"  Causes   of    Fire."     Journal    of    Franklin    Institute 

April,  July,  and  August,  1893. 

HEXAMER,  JOHN  C.,  AND  OTHERS. — "Report  of  Special 
Committee  of  the  Franklin  Institute  on  the  Prevention 
of  Fires  in  Theatres."  June,  1883. 

"  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Theatres  and  Public  Halls  of 
the  Citizens'  Association  of  Chicago."  I.,  January,  1882. 
IL,  October,  1883.  III.,  1887. 

SACHS,  EDWIN  O. — "Urban  Fire  Protection."  London, 
1895. 

"  Notes  on  Fire   Brigades   and  Appliances   of   Conti- 
nental Cities."     London,  1894. 
SHAW,    EYRE    M. — "Fire    in    Theatres."     First    edition. 

London,  1876. 

YOUNG,  A.  H.— "  Theatre  Panics  and  their  Cure."  Lon- 
don :  Batsford,  1896. 

BECKER  u.  GIESENBERG. — "Das  Opernhaus  zu  Frankfurt 
am  Main."  Frankf.  a-M. 

BOOG,  C.,  UND  V.  JONSTORFF,  HANS  FRH.  V.  JUPTNER. — 

"  Zur  Sicherheit  des  Lebens  in  den  Theatern,  mit  beson- 
derer  Berticksichtigung  der  Theater-Brande."  Wien, 
1889. 

FICHTNER,  J. — "  Die  Feuer-Sicherheit  im  Theater."  Strie- 
gau,  1882. 

"  Theater-Brande  und  deren  Verhiitung."  Briinn,  1881. 
FOCKT,  C.  TH. — "Der  Brand  des  Ring-Theaters  in  Wien." 
Wien,  1 88 1. 

"  Der  Ring-Theater-Prozess  in  Wien."     Wien,  1882. 
FOELSCH,  AUG. — "Ueber  Theater-Brande,  u.  ueber  die  fii 
das   neue   Opernhaus   in  Wien   getroffenen   Sicherheits- 
Massregeln."     Wien,  1870. 


1 70  LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES. 

GILARDONE,  FRANZ. — "  Die  neuesten  Erfahrungen  auf  d. 

Gebiet  der  Theater  Sicherheits-Frage."     Hagenau,  1888. 

"  Die  Theater-Brande  des  Jahres.     1888." 
JUNG,  LUDWIG. — "  Fur  Feuerwehren."     Viele  Hefte. 

"  Die    Feuersicherheit    in    oeffentlichen    Gebauden." 

Miinchen,  1879. 
JUNK,  D.  V. — "  Das   Theater-System    der    Gegenwart    u. 

Zukunft."     Wien,  1884. 
PATERA,    AD. — "  Ueber    Flammen-Schutzmittel."      Wien, 

1871. 
PROKOP,  AUG. — "  Die  Sicherheit  der  Person  im  Theater, 

nebst  einem  Beitrag    zur   Theater-Bau-Frage."     Briinn, 

1882. 
RICHTER,  HEINR. — "  Die  Feuer-Sicherheit   der   Theater." 

Wiirzburg,  1886. 
SCHOLLE,  FRIEDR. — "  Ueber    Theater-Brande,    deren   Ur- 

sachen  und  Verhiitung."     Dresden,  1882. 

"  Ueber  Impragnations-Verfahren  als  Schutzmassregel 

gegen  Feuersgefahr."     Dresden. 

STUDE. — "Ein    Mahnwort    an    Jedermann   ueber    Feuer- 
Sicherheit  u.  Feuerschutz  im  Theater.     Briinn,  1882. 
ZIEMBINSKI,  STANISLAW. — "  Neue   selbsthatige  Feuer-Sig- 

nal-Apparate,  und  ein  Vorschlag  z.  Verhiiten  der  Theater- 
Brande."     Krakau,  1882. 
"  Dienstliche  Anweisung  fur  das  Grossherz.    Hoftheater  zu 

Weimar."     Weimar. 
"  Vorschlage  des  Nieder-Oesterreichischen  Gewerbe-Vereins 

betreffend   die  Sicherung   von   Theatern   gegen  Feuers- 

Gefahr."     Wien,  1882. 
"  Veroffentl.  der  Deutschen  Edison  Gesellschaft.     I.     Das 

Edison-Gliihlicht,  u.  seine  Bedeutung  fur  das  Rettungs- 

wesen."     Berlin,  1883, 
"  Veroffentl.    der   Deutschen    Edison    Gesellschaft.      II. 

Elektrische  Beleuchtung  von  Theatern."     Berlin,  1884. 


LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES.  l?l 

"  Vierteljahrsschrift  der  Wiener  Freiw.  Rettungsgesell- 
schaft." 

January,  March,  1883.     Vol.  II.,  i,  2,  3  enth.     Denk- 

schrift  ueber  Paniken  in  Theatern. 

"  Projekt  einer  Theater- Reform  der  Gesellschaft  zur  Her- 
stellung  zeitgemasser  Theater  *  Asphaleia.' "  Leipzig, 
1882. 

BROUARDEL,  DR. — "  La  Mort  dans  les   Theatres,"  Revue 

Sanitaire  de  la  Provence.     No.  132-133,  June,  1889. 
CHENEVIER,  P.—"  La  Question  du  Feu  dans  les  Theatres." 
"  Extinction  des  Incendies  des  Theatres." 
"  La  Securite  des  Spectateurs  dans  les  Theatres." 
"  Reflexions  sur  1'Incendie  de  I'Opera-Comique." 
"  L'Opera-Comique  (apres  1'Incendie)." 
"  La  Defense  des  Theatres  Actuels  Contre  1'Incendie." 
CHOQUET,  DOCTEUR. — "  Les  Incendies  dans  les  Theatres." 

Paris,  1886. 

FIGUIER. — "  L'Incendie  dans  les  Theatres."     1881. 
LE"GOYT,  M. — "  Statistique   des   Incendies   dans   les  The- 
atres."    1882. 
PICCOLI,  D.  V. — "  La  Question  du  Feu  dans  les  Theatres." 

May,  1883. 

TRIPIER,  DR.  A. — "  Assainissement  des  Theatres  ;  Venti- 
lation, Eclairage,  Chauffage."  Paris,  1864. 

"  Sur  la  Ventilation  et  1'Eclairage  des  Salles  de  Specta- 
cle."    Paris,  1858. 
VIVIEN.—"  Surete  dans  les  Theatres." 

III.  ARTICLES  IN  JOURNALS  AND  MAGAZINES. 

1.  "The  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Theatres." — 
Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  by  the  Austrian  Society 
of  Engineers  and  Architects.     Am.  Architect,  1882. 

2.  "  The  Prevention  of  Fires  in   Theatres." — Report  of 


LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES. 

the    Special    Committee  of    the  Franklin    Institute,  1883. 
American  Architect,  June  9,  1883. 

3.  "  Prevention  of  Fires." — Report  of   the  Committee  of 
the  Society  of  Arts,  London,   1883.     American   Architect, 
June  16  and  23,  1883. 

4.  "  Theatre   Fires. " — Four  papers  by  "  R.  G.,"  in  Fire 
and- Water,  1877. 

5.  "  Theatre  Fires  and  Remedies." — Two  Papers  by  "  J. 
A.  F.,"  in  American  Architect,  October  22  and  November 
12,  1887. 

6.  "Theatre    Construction."— By    E.    A.    E.    Woodrow, 
Architect,  Four  parts,  Inland  Architect,  August,  September, 
and  October,  1890. 

7.  "  Prevention  and  Extinction  of  Fires  in  Theatres." — 
By  E.  A.  E.  Woodrow.     Journal  Society  of  Arts,  London, 
April  1 8,  1884. 

8.  "  Fire,  its  Prevention  and  Extinction  in  Theatres." — 
By  Arthur  W.  C.  Shean,  1884.     Journal  Society  of  Arts, 
London,  April  18,  1884. 

9.  "  Prevention  and  Extinction  of  Fires  in  Theatres." — By 
E.  A.  E.  Woodrow,  1892.     Journal  Society  of  Arts,  July 
8,  1892.     Reprinted  in  Building,  August  20,  1892. 

10.  "Theatrical    Architecture."     I-VL— By    E.    A.  E. 
Woodrow.      American  Architect,  October  10  to  December 
19,  1891. 

11.  "  Theatre  Building  Regulations."    I-VIL—  By  E.  A. 
E.  Woodrow.      American    Architect,  April   16   to  August, 
1892. 

12.  "American    Dramatic   Theatres." — Five  articles    by 
John  A.  Fox,  Architect,  in  American  Architect,  July  to  Sep- 
tember, 1879. 

13.  "Scenic  Illusions  and    Scenic    Appliances." — Paper 
by  Percy  Fitzgerald.     Journal  Society  of  Arts,  March   18, 
1887. 

14.  "  Theatres."— By    E.    A.    E.    Woodrow.      American 


LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES.  173 

Architect,  begun  April  14,  1884,  to  October,  1895.     Twenty- 
two  numbers. 

15.  "  Theatres." — By  E.  A.  Woodrow.     Forty-seven  ar- 
ticles, Building  News,  London,  July  15,  1892,  to  December 
28,  1894. 

16.  "  The  Stage."— London  Paper,  July  to  October,  1886, 
articles  on  "  Hygiene  of  the  Stage." 

17.  "The  Sanitation  of  Theatres."— By    Ernest  Turner. 
Reprinted  in  Building,  October  24,  1891. 

18.  "  Hygiene  of  the  Theatre."— By  W.  E.  Roth.     Amer- 
ican Architect,  October  22,  1887. 

'19.  "  The  Planning  and  Construction  of  American  Thea- 
tres."— By  W.  H.  Birkmire.  Twelve  articles,  October  13, 
1894,  to  March  7,  1896,  Building. 

20.  "  The  Essential  Conditions  of  Safety  in  Theatres." — 
By  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard.      American  Architect,  June  23,  July 
7,  July  14,  and  July  21,  1894. 

21.  "  Some  Suggestions  as  to  Theatre  Architecture." — By 
Edwin  O.  Sachs.     The  Builder,  December  15,  1894. 

22.  "  The  Protection  of  Theatres  from  Fire." — By  E.  A. 
E.  Wood-row.     Building  News,  September  27,  1895. 

23.  "  The  Safety  of  Theatre  Audiences."— By  Edwin  O. 
Sachs.     Building  News,  September  27,  1895. 

24.  "Modern  Theatre   Stages."— By  E.O.Sachs.     En- 
gineering, London,  I-VIII,  January  17  and  31,  February 
14  and  28,  March  13,  April   10  and   24,  and  May  8.     (Not 
yet  concluded.) 

25.  "  Concert  Halls  and  Assembly  Rooms." — By  E.  A.  E. 
Woodrow.     I,  Building  News,  October  n,  1895.     (Not  yet 
concluded.) 

26.  "  Theatre  Fire  Catastrophes  and  their  Prevention." — 
Scientific  American  Supplement,  October  27  and  November  3, 
1894,  also  Fire  and  Water,  1894. 

27.  "  Water-supply  and  Fire  Prevention  of  Theatres." — 
Fire  and  Water,  1894. 


LITERATURE   ON  THEATRES. 

28.  "  Some  Recent  Developments  in  Theatre  Planning." 
— Building  News,  March  25,  1892. 

29.  "An  Anniversary — the  Ring  Theatre  Fire." — Ameri- 
can Architect,  December  23,  1882. 

30.  "  Paramount  Requirements  of  a  Large  Opera-house." 
By  Dankmar  Adler.     Inland  Architect  and  Building  News, 
October  1887. 

31.  "  Essential  Features  of  a  Large  Opera-house." — By 
J.  C.  Cady.     Inland  Architect  and  Building  News,  October, 
1887. 

32.  "  Behind  the  Scenes  of  an  Opera-house. — By  Gustav 
Kobbe. 

33.  "  Fire  Protection." — By  Edwin  O.  Sachs.     Journal 
Society  of  Arts,  December  7,  1894. 

34.  "  Theatres  and  Fire-proof  Construction." — By  Walter 
Embden.     Journal  Society  of  Arts,  January  27,  1888. 

35.  "  Electrical  Stage  Effects." — By  Theodore   Waters. 
Electric  Power,  May,  1896. 

36.  "Theatre  Building  for  American  Cities." — By  Dank- 
mar  Adler,  Architect.     Two  articles,  Vol.  VII,  Nos.  5  and 
6,  August  and  September,   1894.     Engineering  Magazine, 
1894. 

37.  "  New  Theatres  at  Berlin  and  their  Safety  against  Fire 
and   Panic." — By   Edwin  O.   Sachs.      American  Architect, 
May  19,  1894. 

38.  "Bad  Air   in    Theatres."— By   C.    S.    Montgomery. 
Engineering  Magazine,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  May,  1892. 

39.  "Theatre  Ventilation."— By  John  P.  Seddon.     Build- 
ing News,  February  15,  1884. 

40.  "  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre." — Scientific  American,  Archi- 
tects'and  Builders'  Edition,  March  to  July,  1893. 

41.  "  Fifth  Avenue  Theatre." — Engineering  Record,  July 
and  August,  1891. 

42.  "  Theatre  Machinery." — Frank  Leslie's  Monthly  Mag- 
azine, February,  1895. 


LITERATURE   ON   THEATRES.  1 75 

43.  "  Literature  on  Theatres." — Compiled   by   W.    Paul 
Gerhard,  C.E.     American  Architect,  June  27,  1896. 


IV.  RULES  AND  REGULATIONS. 

Polizei-Verordnung,  betreffend  die  bauliche  Anlage  u. 
innere  Einrichtung  von  Theatern,  Circusgeb.  u.  offentl. 
Versammlungs-Raumen.  Berlin,  1889. 

Nachtrag  dazu.     Berlin,  1891. 

Bestimmungen  ueber  die  Bau-Art  der  von  der  Staats-Bau- 
Verwaltung  auszuf.  Gebaude  unter  besonderer  Beriick- 
sichtigung  der  Verkehrs-Sicherheit.  Berlin,  1892. 

London  County  Council.  Metropolitan  Building  Acts. 
Regulations  made  by  Council,  February  9,  1892,  with  re- 
spect to  theatres. 

Letter  relating  to  Precautions  against  Fire,  by  the  Lord 
Chamberlain,  to  theatre-managers,  February  15,  1864. 

V.  OFFICIAL  REPORTS. 

Report  from  the  Select  Committee  on  "  Theatrical  Licen- 
ses and  Regulations,"  together  with  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Committee,  Minutes  of  Evidence,  Appendix  and  Index. 
London,  1866  (Blue  Book). 

Report  from  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
on  "  Theatres."  London,  1887  (Blue  Book). 

Report  from  the  Select  Committee  on  "  Theatres  and 
Places  of  Entertainment,"  together  with  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Committee,  Minutes  of  Evidence,  Appendix  and  Index. 
(House  of  Commons  Blue  Book,  June  2,  1892.) 


SHORT-TITLE   CATALOGUE 

OF  THE 

PUBLICATIONS 

OF 

JOHN  WILEY   &   SONS, 

NEW    YORK, 

LONDON:    CHAPMAN   &   HALL,  LIMITED. 
ARRANGED  UNDER  SUBJECTS. 


Descriptive  circulars  sent  on  application. 

Books  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  sold  at  net  prices  only. 

All  books  are  bound  in  cloth  unless  otherwise  stated. 


AGRICULTURE. 

CATTLE  FEEDING— DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS — GARDENING,  ETC. 

Armsby's  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding 12mo,  $1  75 

Downing's  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees Svo,  5  00 

Kemp's  Landscape  Gardening. .12mo,  2  50 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils " Svo,  2  50 

Lloyd's  Science  of  Agriculture Svo,  4  00 

Loudon's  Gardening  for  Ladies.     (Downing.) 12rao,  1  50 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Ox Svo,  6  00 

"      Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog Svo,  3  50 

Grotenfelt's  The  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.     (Woll.) 

12mo, .  2  00 

ARCHITECTURE. 

BUILDING — CARPENTRY— STAIRS,  ETC. 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  7  50 

Birkmire's  Architectural  Iron  and  Steel Svo,  3  50 

Skeleton  Construction  in  Buildings Svo,  3  00 

1 


Birkmire's  Compound  Riveted  Girders 8vo,  $2  00 

"         American  Theatres— Planning  and  Construction. 8vo,  300 

Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings 8vo,  3  00 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo,  2  50 

Kidder's  Architect  and  Builder's  Pocket-book Morocco  flap,  4  00 

Hatfield's  American  House  Carpenter Svo,  5  00 

Transverse  Strains Svo,  5  00 

Monckton's  Stair  Building — Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 4to,  4  00 

Gerhard's  Sanitary  House  Inspection 16mo,  1  00 

Downing  and  Wightwick's  Hints  to  Architects , .  .8vo,  2  00 

Cottages Svo,  2  50 

Holly's  Carpenter  and  Joiner ISmo,  75 

Worcester's  Small  Hospitals-  -Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
including  Atkinson's  Suggestions  for.  Hospital  Archi- 
tecture  12mo,  125 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to,  2  50 

ARMY,  NAVY,  Etc. 

MILITARY  ENGINEERING — ORDNANCE — PORT  CHARGES,  ETC. 

Cooke's  Naval  Ordnance Svo,  $12  50 

Metcalfe's  Ordnance  and  Gunnery 12tno,  with  Atlas,  5  00 

Ingalls's  Handbook  of  Problems  in  Direct  Fire Svo,  4  00 

Ballistic  Tables .-. . .  Svo,  150 

BucknilFs  Submarine  Mines  and  Torpedoes Svo,  4  00 

Todd  and  Whall's  Practical  Seamanship Svo,  7  50 

Mahau's  Advanced  Guard ISmo,  1  50 

Permanent  Fortifications.  (Mercur.). Svo,  half  morocco,  750 

Wheeler's  Siege  Operations Svo,  2  00 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Dietz's  Soldier's  First  Aid 12mo,  morocco,  1  25 

Young's  Simple  Elements  of  Navigation..  12mo,  morocco  flaps,  2  50 

Reed's  Signal  Service 50 

Phelps's  Practical  Marine  Surveying Svo,  2  50 

Very's  Navies  of  the  World Svo,  half  morocco,  3  50 

Bourne's  Screw  Propellers 4to,  5  00 

3 


Hunter's  Port  Charges 8vo,  half  morocco,  $13  00 

*  Dredge's  Modern  French  Artillery 4to,  half  morocco,  20  00 

"          Record   of   the   Transportation    Exhibits    Building, 

World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893.. 4to,  half  morocco,  15  00 

Mercur's  Elements  of  the  Art  of  War 8vo,  4  00 

Attack  of  Fortified  Places .12mo,  200 

Chase's  Screw  Propellers ,8vo,  3  00 

Wiuthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law 12mo,  2  50 

De  Brack's  Cavalry  Outpost  Duties.     (Carr.). . .  .18ino,  morocco,  2  00 

Cronkhite's  Gunnery  for  Non-com.  Officers ISmo,  morocco,  2  00 

Dyer's  Light  Artillery 12mo,  3  00 

Sharped  Subsisting  Armies 18mo,  1  25 

"                               "        18mo,  morocco,  1  50 

Powell's  Army  Officer's  Examiner 12mo,  4  00 

Hoff's  Naval  Tactics . .. 8vo,  1  50 

Bruff  s  Ordnance  and  Gunnery 8vo,  6  00 

ASSAYING. 

SMELTING — ORE  DRESSING— ALLOYS,  ETC. 

Furnian's  Practical  Assaying 8vo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes 12rno,  1  50 

Fletcher's  Quant.  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe..  12mo,  morocco,  1  50 

Ricketts's  Assaying  and  Assay  Schemes 8vo,  3  00 

*  Mitchell's  Practical  Assaying.     (Crookes.) 8vo,  10  00 

Thurston's  Alloys,  Brasses,  and  Bronzes. 8vo,  2  50 

Kuuhardt's  Ore  Dressing s 8vo,  1  50 

O'Driscoll's  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  00 

ASTRONOMY. 

PRACTICAL,  THEORETICAL,  AND  DESCRIPTIVE. 

Michie  and  Harlow's  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  3  00 

White's  Theoretical  and  Descriptive  Astronomy 12mo,  2  00 

Doolittle's  Practical  Astronomy Svo,  4  00 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  50 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy .8vo,  2  50 

3 


BOTANY. 

GARDENING  FOB  LADIES,  ETC. 

Westermaier's  General  Botany.     (Schneider.) 8vo,  $2  00 

Thome's  Structural  Botany 18mo,  2  25 

Baldwin's  Orchids  of  New  England 8vo,  1  50 

London's  Gardening  for  Ladies.     (Downing.) 12mo,  1  50 

BRIDGES,  ROOFS,   Etc. 

CANTILEVER — HIGHWAY — SUSPENSION. 

Boiler's  Highway  Bridges 8vo,  2  00 

*  "       The  Thames  River  Bridge 4to,  paper,  5  00 

Burr's  Stresses  in  Bridges. 8vo,  3  50 

Merriman  &  Jacoby's  Text-book  of  Roofs  and  Bridges.     Part 

I.,  Stresses 8vo,  250 

Merriman  &  Jacoby's  Text-book  of  Roofs  and  Bridges.     Part 

II.,  Graphic  Statics 8vo.  2  50 

Merrimau  &  Jacoby's  Text-book  of  Roofs  and  Bridges.  .  Part 

III.,  Bridge  Design 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman  &  Jacoby's  Text-book  of  Roofs  and  Bridges.     Part 

IV.,   Continuous,    Draw,    Cantilever,    Suspension,    and 

Arched  Bridges (In  preparation). 

Crehore's  Mechanics  of  the  Girder 8vo,  5  00 

Du  Bois's  Strains  in  Framed  Structures 4to,  10  00 

Greene's  Roof  Trusses • 8vo,  1  25 

Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  250 

"        Arches  in  Wood,  etc 8vo,  2  50 

"Waddell's  Iron  Highway  Bridges 8vo,  4  00 

Wood's  Construction  of  Bridges  aud  Roofs 8vo,  2  00 

Foster's  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,  5  00 

*  Morison's  The  Memphis  Bridge Oblong  4to,  10  00 

Johnson's  Modern  Framed  Structures 4to,  10  00 

CHEMISTRY. 

QUALITATIVE — QUANTITATIVE — ORGANIC — INORGANIC,  ETC. 

Fresenius's  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.    (Johnson.) 8vo,      4  00 

Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.    (Allen.) 8vo,      6  00 

*     "  "  "  (Boltou.) 8vo,       1  50 

4 


Oafts's  Qualitative  Analysis.     (Schaeffer.) I2mo,  $1  50 

Perkins's  Qualitative  Analysis 12mo,  1  00 

Thorpe's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis 18mo,  1  50 

Classen's  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Herrick.) 8vo,  3  00 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

O'Brine's  Laboratory  Guide  to  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  2  00 

Mixter's  Elementary  Text-book  of  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

Wulling's  Inorganic  Phar.  and  Med.  Chemistry 12mo,  2  00 

Mandel's  Bio-chemical  Laboratory . 12mo,  1  50 

Austen's  Notes  for  Chemical  Students 12mo, 

Schiinpf's  Volumetric  Analysis 12mo,  2  50 

Hammarsten's  Physiological  Chemistry  (Maudel.) ,8vo,  4  00 

Miller's  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  2  00 

Pinner's  Organic  Chemistry.     (Austen.) 12mo,  1  50 

Kolbe's  Inorganic  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

Ricketts  and  Russell's  Notes  on  Inorganic  Chemistry  (Non- 
metallic)  Oblong  8vo,  morocco,  75 

Drechsel's  Chemical  Reactions.    (Merrill.) 12mo,  1  25 

Adriance's  Laboratory  Calculations 12mo,  1  25 

Troilius's  Chemistry  of  Iron 8vo,  2  00 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis 8vo, 

Nichols's  Water  Supply  (Chemical  and  Sanitary) 8vo,  2  50 

Mason's        "           "               "           "         "         8vo,  500 

Spencer's  Sugar  Manufacturer's  Handbook.  12mo,  morocco  flaps,  2  00 

Wiechmann's  Sugar  Analysis 8vo,  2  50 

Chemical  Lecture  Notes 12mo,  300 

DRAWING. 

ELEMENTARY — GEOMETRICAL — TOPOGRAPHICAL. 
Hill's  Shades  and  Shadows  and  Perspective. . .  .(In  preparation) 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.    (Thompson.) 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

MacCord's  Kinematics 8vo,  5  00 

41         Mechanical  Drawing. 8vo,  400 

"         Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  3  00 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing.     (II.  A.) 4to,  5  00 

Smith's  Topographical  Drawing. '   (Macmillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Warren's  Free-hand  Drawing    12mo,  1  00 

5 


Warren's  Drafting  Instruments > 12mo,  $1  25 

"  Projection  Drawing 12mo,  150 

"  Linear  Perspective 12mo,  100 

Plane  Problems , 12mo,  125 

"  Primary  Geometry , 12mo,  75 

"  Descriptive  Geometry 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

*'  Problems  and  Theorems 8vo,  250 

"  Machine  Construction 2  vols.,  8vo,  7  50 

Stereotomy— Stone  Cutting 8vo,  250 

"  Higher  Linear  Perspective 8vo,  3  50 

Shades  and  Shadows 8vo,  300 

Whelpley's  Letter  Engraving 12mo,  2  00 

ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM. 

ILLUMINATION— BATTERIES— PHYSICS. 

*  Dredge's  Electric  Illuminations. . .  .2  vols.,  4to,  half  morocco,  25  00 

Vol.  II 4to,  750 

Niaudet's  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback.) 7 12mo,  250 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text- book  of  Physics 8vo,  4  00 

Cosmic  Law  of  Thermal  Repulsion 18mo,  75 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam.  Engines  for  Electric  Lighting  Pur- 
poses  12mo,  1  50 

Michie's  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light, 8vo,  4  00 

Barker's  Deep-sea  Soundings 8vo,  2  00 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  00 

Tillman's  Heat 8vo,  1  50 

Gilbert's  De-magnete.     (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

Benjamin's  Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  00 

Reagan's  Steam  and  Electrical  Locomotives 12mo  2  00 

ENGINEERING. 

CIVIL — MECHANICAL — SANITARY,  ETC. 

*  Trautwine's  Cross-section Sheet,  25 

*  "            Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-book.  ..12mo,  mor.  flaps,  500 

*  ' '            Excavations  and  Embankments 8 vo,  2  00 

*  "            Laying  Out* Curves 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Hudson's  Excavation  Tables.    Vol.  II 8vo,  1  00 


Searles's  Field  Engineering 12mo,  morocco  flaps,  $3  00 

Railroad  Spiral 12mo,  morocco  flaps,  1  50 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engiueer'sField-book.l2mo,  pocket-bk.  form,  2  50 

Butts's  Engineer's  Field-book 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Gore's  Elements  of  Goodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Wellington's  Location  of  Railways. . . 8vo,  5  00 

*  Dredge's  Penn.  Railroad  Construction,  etc.  .  .  Folio,  half  mor.,  20  00 
Smith's  Cable  Tramways 4to,  2  50 

Wire  Manufacture  and  Uses 4to,  .300 

Mahan's  Civil  Engineering.      (Wood.) 8vo,  5  00 

Wheeler's  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  4  00 

Mosely's  Mechanical  Engineering.     (Mahan.) 8vo,  5  00 

Johnson's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying 8vo,  4  00 

Stadia  Reduction  Diagram.  .Sheet,  22£  X  28£  inches,  50 

*  Drinker's  Tunnelling 4to,  half  morocco,  25  00 

Eissler's  Explosives — Nitroglycerine  and  Dynamite 8vo,  4  00 

Foster's  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges. . .  i 4to,  5  00 

Ruff ner's  Non-tidal  Rivers 8vo,  1  25 

Greene's  Roof  Trusses 8vo,  1  25 

"      Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  250 

"      Arches  in  Wood,  etc 8vo,  250 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering — Solids  and  Fluids 8vo,  6  00 

"        Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  2  00 

'Howe's  Retaining  Walls  (New  Edition.) 12mo,  1  25 

Wegmann's  Construction  of  Masonry  Dams 4to,  5  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Construction, 8vo,  5  00 

Baker's  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

"       Surveying  Instruments 12mo,  3  00 

Warren's  Stereotomy— Stone  Cutting 8vo,  2  50 

Nichols's  Water  Supply  (Chemical  and  Sanitary) 8vo,  2  50 

Mason's        "           "              "            "          "        8vo,  500 

Gerhard's  Sanitary  House  Inspection 16mo,  1  00 

Kirkwood's  Lead  Pipe  for  Service  Pipe 8vo,  1  50 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  00 

Howard's  Transition  Curve  Field-book 12mo,  morocco  flap,  1  50 

Crandail's  The  Transition  Curve 12mo,  morocco,  1  50 

7 


Craudall's  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  $1  50 

Pattoii's  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  7  50 

"       Foundations 8vo,  500 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,  6  00 

Webb's  Engineering  Instruments 12mo,  morocco,  1  00 

Black's  U.  S.  Public  Works 4to,  5  00 

Merriman  and  Brook's  Handbook  for  Surveyors.  .  .  .12mo,  mor.,  2  00 

Merriman's  Retaining  Walls  and  Masonry  Dams 8vo,  2  00 

"          Geodetic  Surveying 8vo,  2  00 

Kiersted's  Sewage  Disposal 12rno,  1  25 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone  Cutting  and  Masonry. .  .8vo,  1  50 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-book 12mo,  morocco,  5  00 

HYDRAULICS. 

WATER-WHEELS — WINDMILLS — SERVICE  PIPE — DRAINAGE,  ETC. 

Weisbach's  Hydraulics.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulic§ 8vo,  4  00 

Ganguillet&  Kutter'sFJow  of  Water.  (Hering&  Trautwine.).8vo,  4  00 

Nichols's  Water  Supply  (Chemical  and  Sanitary) 8vo,  2  50 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  00 

Ferrel's  Treatise  on  the  Winds,  Cyclones,  and  Tornadoes. .  .8vo,  4  00 

Kirkwood's  Lead  Pipe  for  Service  Pipe  8vo,  1  50 

Ruffner's  Improvement  for  Non-tidal  Rivers 8vo,  1  25 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering 8vo,  4  00 

Bovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics. 8vo,  4  00 

Wegmann's  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York 4to,  10  00 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water  Supply 8vo,  2  00 

Mason's  Water  Supply— Chemical  and  Sanitary 8vo,  5  00 

Wood's  Theory  of.  Turbines , . 8vo,  2  50 

MANUFACTURES. 

ANILINE — BOILERS— EXPLOSIVES— IRON— SUGAR — WATCHES- 
WOOLLENS,  ETC. 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures 8vo,  5  00 

Metcalf's  Steel  (Manual  for  Steel  Users). ; 12mo,  2  00 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis 8vo, 

8 


West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12m o,  $2  50 

'•  ••*      Moulder's  Text-book 12mo,  2  50 

Spencer's  Sugar  Manufacturer's  Handbook 12mo,  mor.  flap,  2  00 

Wiechmann's  Sugar  Analysis , 8vo,  2  50 

Beaumont's  Woollen  and  Worsted  Manufacture 12ino,  1  50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece  Dyeing 8vo,  25  00 

Eissler's  Explosives,  Nitroglycerine  and  Dynamite 8vo,  4  00 

Reimann's  Aniline  Colors.     (Crookes.) 8vo,  2  50 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers 18mo,  1  00 

Tlmrston's  Manual  of  Steam  Boilers 8vo,  5  00 

Booth's  Clock  and  Watch  Maker's  Manual 12mo,  2  00 

Holly's  Saw  Filing 18mo,  75 

Svedelius's  Handbook  for  Charcoal  Burners 12mo,  1  50 

The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses ...8vo,  6  00 

Woodbury's  Fire  Protection  of  Mills 8vo,  2  50 

Bolland's  The  Iron  Founder 12mo,  2  50 

"          "       "           "        Supplement 12mo,  250 

"        Encyclopaedia  of  Founding  Terms 12mo,  3  00 

Bouvier's  Handbook  on  Oil  Painting 12mo,  2  00 

Steven's  House  Painting 18mo,  75 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

STRENGTH — ELASTICITY — RESISTANCE,  ETC. 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  8vo,  8  00 

Vol.  I.,  Non-metallic. 8vo,  200 

Vol.  II.,  Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Vol.  III. ,  Alloys,  Brasses,  and  Bronzes 8vo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

Baker's  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

"        Strength  of  Wooden  Columns 8vo,  paper,  50 

Wood's  Resistance  of  Materials 8vo,  2  00 

Weyrauch's  Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel.    (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  1  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  Materials 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials. .«. 8vo,  4  00 

Church's  Mechanic's  of  Engineering — Solids  and  Fluids 8vo,  6  00 


Beardslee  ami  Kent's  Strength  of  Wrought  Iron 8vo,  $1  50 

Hatfield's  Transverse  Strains 8vo,  5  00 

Du  Bois's  Strains  in  Framed  Structures 4lo,  10  00 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration .8vo,  5  00 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials 8vo,  7  50 

Spalding's  Roads  and  Pavements 12mo,  2  00 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France 12mo,  1  25 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

Pattou's  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,  5  00 

MATHEMATICS. 

CALCULUS — GEOMETRY— TRIGONOMETRY,  ETC. 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Differential  Calculus 8vo,  3  50 

"                  Abridgment  of  Differential  Calculus.... 8vo,  150 
"                  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus, 

2  vols.  in  1,  12rno,  2  50 

Johnson's  Integral  Calculus 12mo,  1  50 

Curve  Tracing 12mo,  1  00 

"        Differential  Equations — Ordinary  and  Partial 8vo,  350 

Least  Squares 12mo,  1  50 

Craig's  Linear  Differential  Equations 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman  and  Woodward's  Higher  Mathematics 8vo, 

Bass's  Differential  Calculus 12mo, 

Halsted's  Synthetic  Geometry 8vo,  1  50 

"       Elements  of  Geometry c..8vo,  175 

Chapman's  Theory  of  Equations 12mo,  1  50 

Merrirnan's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,  2  00 

Compton's  Logarithmic  Computations 12mo,  1  50 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra 8vo,  1  50 

Warren's  Primary  Geometry 12mo,  75 

Plane  Problems. 12mo,  1  25 

Descriptive  Geometry 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

Problems  and  Theorems 8vo,  250 

"        Higher  Linear  Perspective 8vo,  3  50 

"        Free-hand  Drawing. ..- 12mo,  100 

"        Drafting  Instruments 12mo,  1  25 

10 


Warren's  Projection  Drawing. . . .  •. I2mo,  $1  50 

"        Linear  Perspective 12mo,  1  00 

Plane  Problems 12mo,  125 

Searles's  Elements  of  Geometry 8vo,  1  50 

Brigg's  Plane  Analytical  Geometry 12rno,  1  00 

Wood's  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,  2  00 

Trigonometry 12mo,  100 

Maban's  Descriptive  Geometry  (Stone  Cutting) 8vo,  1  50 

Woolf  s  Descriptive  Geometry Royal  8vo,  3  00 

Ludlow's  Trigonometry  with  Tables.     (Bass.) 8vo,  3  00 

Logaritbmic  and  Other  Tables.     (Bass.) 8vo,  2  00 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions 8vo,  1  50 

Parker's  Quadrature  of  the  Circle , 8vo,  2  50 

Totten's  Metrology 8vo,  2  50 

Ballard's  Pyramid  Problem   8vo,  1  50 

Barnard's  Pyramid  Problem 8vo,  1  50 

MECHANICS-MACHINERY. 

TEXT-BOOKS  AND  PRACTICAL  WORKS. 

Dana's  Elementary  Mechanics 12mo,  1  50 

Wood's          "                 "           12mo,  125 

Supplement  and  Key. 1  25 

Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  00 

Michie's  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  4  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  00 

."        Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  200 

Mosely's  Mechanical  Engineering.     (Mahan.) 8vo,  5  00 

Weisbach's    Mechanics    of   Engineering.     Vol.    III.,   Part  I., 

Sec.  I.     (Klein.) 8vo,  500 

Weisbach's  Mechanics    of  Engineering.     Vol.   III.,    Part  I., 

Sec.  II.     (Klein.) 8vo,  500 

Weisbach's  Hydraulics  and  Hydraulic  Motors.    (Du  Bois.)..8vo,  5  00 

"         Steam  Engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  00 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

11 


Crehore's  Mechanics  of  the  Girder 8vo,  $5  00 

MacCord's  Kinematics 8vo,  5  00 

Thurston's  Friction  and  Lost  Work 8vo,  3  00 

"          The  Animal  as  a  Machine 12mo,  1  00 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication 12mo,  1  00 

Warren's  Machine  Construction 2  vols.,  8vo,  7  50 

Chordal's  Letters  to  Mechanics 12mo,  2  00 

The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses 8vo,  6  00 

Cromwell's  Toothed  Gearing 12nio,  1  50 

Belts  and  Pulleys... „ 12mo,  150 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics.     Vol.  I.,  Kinematics 8vo,  3  50 

Vol.  II.,  Statics 8vo,  400 

Vol.  III.,  Kinetics 8vo,  3  50 

Dredge's     Trans.     Exhibits     Building,      World     Exposition, 

4to,  half  morocco,  15  00 

Flather's  Dynamometers 12mo,  200 

Rope  Driving 12mo,  200 

Richards's  Compressed  Air 12mo,  1  50 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  8  00 

Holly's  Saw  Filing 18mo,  75 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist 18mo,  1  00 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings I2mo,  2  50 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures 8vo,  5  00 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes 12mo,  2  00 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Malting 12mo,  2  00 

METALLURGY. 

IRON— GOLD— SILVER— ALLOYS,  ETC. 

Egleston's  Metallurgy  of  Silver 8vo,  7  50 

Gold  and  Mercury 8vo,  750 

Weights  and  Measures,  Tables 18mo,  75 

"  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  250 

O'Driscoll's  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  00 

*  Kerl's  Metallurgy— Copper  and  Iron 8vo,  15  00 

*  "           "               Steel,  Fuel,  etc 8vo,  1500 

12 


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Alloys 8vo,  250 

Troilius's  Chemistry  of  Iron 8vo,  2  00 

Kunhardt's  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe 8vo,  1  50 

Weyrauch's  Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  1  50 

Beardslee  and  Kent's  Strength  of  Wrought  Iron Svo,  1  50 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal  Working 12mo,  1  50 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

"     Moulder's  Text-book . .                   12mo,  2  50 


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Dana's  Descriptive  Mineralogy.     (E.  S.) Svo,  half  morocco,  12  50 

"      Mineralogy  and  Petrography.     (J.  D.) 12mo,  2  00 

"      Text-book  of  Mineralogy.    (E.  S.) Svo,  3  50 

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"      American  Localities  of  Minerals Svo,  1  00 

Brush  and  Dana's  Determinative  Mineralogy Svo,  3  50 

Rosenbusch's    Microscopical    Physiography  of    Minerals    and 

Rocks.     (Iddings.) . .  .8vo,  500 

Hussak's  Rock- forming  Minerals.     (Smith.) Svo,  2  00 

Williarns's  Lithology Svo,  3  00 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals Svo,  1  25 

"       Dictionary  of  the  Names  of  Minerals Svo,  3  00 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms Svo,  2  50 

Goodyear 's  Coal  Mines  of  the  Western  Coast 12mo,  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe 8vo,  1  50 

Sawyer's  Accidents  in  Mines Svo,  7  00 

Wilson's  Mine  Ventilation '.16mo,  1  25 

Boyd's  Resources  of  South  Western  Virginia Svo,  3  00 

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Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils Svo,  2  50 

Eissler's  Explosives — Nitroglycerine  and  Dynamite Svo,  4  00 

13 


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Beard's  Ventilation  of  Mines 12mo,  250 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo,  4  00 

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12uio,  2  00 
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and  Theory 8vo,  7  50 

Thurstou's  Manual  of  the   Steam  Engine.     Part  II.,    Design, 

Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  7  50 

2  parts,  12  00 

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Peabody's  Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam  Engine 8vo,  5  00 

Valve  Gears  for  the  Steam-Engiue 8vo,  2  50 

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Pupiu  and  Osterberg's  Thermodynamics 12uio,  1  25 

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Reagan's  Steam  and  Electrical  Locomotives 12mo,  2  00 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction .4to,  10  00 

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Trow  bridge's  Stationary  Steam  Engines 4to,  boards,  2  50 

14 


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Totteu's  Metrology 8vo,  2  50 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards. Cardboard,  25 

Hudson's  Excavation  Tables.     Vol.  II 8vo,  1  00 

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niSCELLANEOUS  PUBLICATIONS. 

Alcott's  Gems,  Sentiment,  Language Gilt  edges,  5  00 

Bailey's  The  New  Tale  of  a  Tub 8vo,  75 

Ballard's  Solution  of  the  Pyramid  Problem 8vo,  1  50 

Barnard's  The  Metrological  System  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  ,8vo,  1  50 

15 


*  Wiley's  Yosemite,  Alaska,  and  Yellowstone 4to,  $3  00 

Emmon's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  .8vo,  1  50 

Ferret's  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo,  4  00 

Perkins's  Cornell  University Oblong  4to,  1  50 

Ricketts's  History  of  Kensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 8vo,  3  00 

Mott's  The  Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound.  .Sq.  IGnio,  1  00 
Rotherham's    The    New    Testament    Critically  Emphathized. 

12ino,  1  50 

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Whitehouse's  Lake  Moeris Paper,  25 

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"       Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar. 12mo,  1  25 

"       Hebrew  Chrestomathy 8vo,  2  00 

Letteris's    Hebrew  Bible  (Massoretic  Notes  in  English). 

8vo,  arabesque,  2  25 
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Talmud  Babli  Idioms 12mo,  1  50 

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Mott's  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

Large  mounted  chart,  1  25 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Ox 8vo,  6  00 

Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog 8vo,  3  50 

Worcester's  Small  Hospitals — Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
including  Atkinson's  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Archi- 
tecture  12mo,  1  25 

Hammarsten's  Physiological  Chemistry.   (Mandel.) 8vo,  4  00 


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